£ 



FRENCH GRAMMAR; 



CONTAINING 



ALL THE RULES OF THE LANGUAGE, 



A NEW AND IMPROVED PLAN 



BY COUNT DE LAPORTE, 

INSTRUCTOR IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE TN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 



5b e c o n tj 32 nit ion. 



BOSTON: 
WILLIAM D. TICKNOR & COMPANY 



MDCCCXLVII. 



-?G* A 






D<\ 



•VW 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by 

COUNT DE LAPORTE, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



Stereotyped by 

GEORGE A. CURTIS; 

NEW ENGLAND TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. 



PREFACE. 



This second edition of our Grammar, when compared with 
the first, will be found a work entirely new, not in reference 
to rules, which cannot be altered, but as to the arrangement 
of matters. With a desire of shortening the work, we have 
suppressed a great number of illustrations, which, in fact, are 
better placed in a dictionary than in a grammar, whilst we 
j.ve dwelt at a greater length on some points of great diffi- 
culty, such as the use of the article, and that of the tenses and 
moods in the verbs. We have also added for each part of 
speech a series of questions so arranged as to embrace all the 
difficulties and details of the language. Those questions will 
be of great service both to pupils and teachers ; they will 
enable the former to ascertain what is the true bearing of the 
rules, and save much trouble to the latter. The plan we have 
adopted for the conjugation of verbs, after a little practice, will 
render this endless task comparatively easy; since, instead of 
loading the memory with the innumerable quantity of words 
which compose the great family of this part of speech, in its 
several moods, tenses and persons, it will only be necessary to 
remember the five primitive tenses, that is to say, seven words 
for each conjugation, in the regular verbs, and learn the termi- 
nations of the derivative tenses, which never vary. As to the 
irregular verbs, it will be seen that most of them are formed 
■regularly from their primitive tenses, and therefore they present 
no difficulty; the others, it is true, require particular attention, 
but their number is very limited. 

The following questions should be asked by the teacher, for 
each group of irregular verbs, in each conjugation. I take the 
verb aller, to go, for an example. 

1st. Is the verb aller, to go, regular or irregular ? 

2d. Is it an active or a neuter verb ? Why is it neuter ? 

3d. With what auxiliary is it conjugated ? 

4th. What are its five primitive tenses, the present of the 
infinitive, the present and past participles, the three persons 



IV PREFACE. 

singular of the present of the indicative, and the preterite 
definite? 

5th. Are all the derivative tenses of this verb regularly 
formed from the primitive ? 

6th. Which are those which are irregularly formed ? 

The answer to the last question should be as follows : 

The third person plural of the present of the indicative is 
irregularly formed ; it is " Us vont" instead of " Us allent." 

Th.° future absolute, and the conditional present, are also 
irreguiar; they are "j'irai" &c, and " j Hrais" &c, instead 
of " j'allerai" &c, and " fallerais," &c. 

The second person singular of the imperative is " va," in- 
stead of" vais." 

Finally, the present of the subjunctive is irregular in its 
first, second, and third persons singular, and the third person 
plural, which are " que faille, que tu allies, quHl aille," and 
" quHls aillent" instead of " que falle, que tu alles, qu'il alle, 
and qiCils allent.'''' 

By following this method, the mind of the pupil remains 
strongly impressed with the irregularity of each verb, and the 
number of primitive ideas that he has to remember is reduced 
almost to nothing. 

We will remark, that each chapter having a distinct title, 
this grammar will be as practical for children as for those 
whose education is further advanced, the teacher being thus 
enabled to point out separately such parts as he thinks best 
adapted to the minds of his pupils. 

No exercises will be found in this grammar ; its size has 
prevented it ; but we have published another work, under the 
title of" Speaking Exercises" which will supply this deficiency. 
As to what regards pronunciation, we refer the student to our 
Reader, the success and practicability of which has greatly 
surpassed our most sanguine hopes. 

In presenting this book to the public, we must once more 
apologize for its faults of style. We have aimed to be clear 
and precise, and if we have succeeded in this point, we hope 
to be excused for deficiencies resulting from the disadvantages 
under which we have labored, as a foreigner. We should 
also thank the public for the kind and encouraging reception 
made to the first edition of this work, and we hope that the 
pains we have taken to render it more clear and practical will 
meet with the approbation of both scholars and teachers. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Page. Paragraph. 
Pronunciation, 1 2 

Accentuation, 2 3 

Punctuation, and other signs used in the French language, 2 4 

Elision, 3 5 

Of Genders, 4 6 to 16 

Genders of nouns, mostly depending on their termination, . 8 17, IS 

A table of nouns which are masculine in one signification and 

feminine in another, ...... 10 19 

Terminations showing the similarity of words in French and 

English, 12 20,21 

Of the Article and its definition, ... 13 22, 23 

Contraction of the article with the prepositions d and de, . 14 24 to 28 

Definition of a definite noun, 15 29 

w " an indefinite noun, ..... 17 30 

Of the partitive words some and any either expressed or under- 
stood in English, 18 31 to 42 

Of the use of the article with proper names, ... 23 43 
" " " " with names of countries not preceded 

by a preposition, 24 44, 45 

Of the use of the article with names of countries preceded by 

a preposition, 24 46 to 55 

Of the use of the article with names of cities, . . 29 36 to 58 
" " " " with names of rivers used without a 

preposition, ....... 30 59 

Of the use of the article with names of rivers used with a 

preposition; 30 60 to 62 

Of common nouns used sometimes with the article and some- 
times without it, 32 

Of common nouns used as titles of chapters, books, docu- 
ments, &c, 32 63 to 68 

Of directions, 33 69 

Of expressions similar to : etre en prison or d la prison, etre en 

ville, a la ville, or dans la ville, .... 34 70, 71 
A* 



VI CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 

Of cases in which a noun, being used as the complement of a 
verb, expresses with that verb but one idea, which, gen- 
erally, may be conveyed by one word, ... 35 72 

Of the article with nouns used as apostrophes and interjections, 37 73, 76 

" " " " employed in apposition, or adjectively, 37 74 

" " " " " as the objects of nouns of 

sorts, kinds, or species, 37 75 

Of the article with the pronouns mon, ton, son, notre, voire, 
leur, ce, nul, aucun, quelque, chaque, tout, (used for chaque,) 
certain, plusieurs, and tel, ..... 38 77 

Of the article with proper names of deities, men and animals, 39 78 

" " " some Italian and French proper names, 40 79 

" " " nouns preceded by adverbs or expressions 

of quantity, 40 80 

Of the article with names of measure, weight, and purchase, 41 81 

" " " more and less, when used together in English 

to form a comparison, 42 82 

Of the article used in forming a comparison in the superlative 

degree, 42 83 

Of the use of the article with the adverbs more, less, and best, 

being sometimes variable and sometimes invariable, 43 84, 85 

Of the repetition of the article, 43 86 

<* " " " with nouns united by the con- 

junction or, ou, ....... 44 87 

Of the repetition of the article with two adjectives united by 

the conjunction and, et, ... 44 88 

Of the repetition of the article with two adjectives united by 

the conjunction or, ou, ...... 45 89 

Of cases in which the sense of a sentence changes entirely by 
using or suppressing the article before a noun used as the 
complement of a verb, 45 90 

Examples in which the article should not be used, 46 91 

A table of the same nouns employed either with or without the 
article, according to their signification being either definite 
or indefinite, 47 

Place of the article with the adjective tout, all, and the nouns 

monsieur, madame, monseigneur, &c., ... 50 92 

Questions on the article, 50 

Of the Noun, 52 93 

Of Number in the substantive, 53 94 

Of Gender " 53 95 

Formation of the feminine in nouns, .... 55 96 

" " " " ending with a mute e, 55 97 

" « « « " in en, on, and et, 56 98 

" « " " " in eur, 56 99 

" " " " « in#, . . 57 100 



CONTENTS. 



VII 



61 


102 to 124 


62 


125 


62 


126 


63 


127 to 131 


64 


132, 133 


64 


134 to 138 


65 


139 


65 


140 



€6 



66 
66 



Page. Paragraph. 

Of nouns which are either masculine or feminine, according 

to their number and signification, .... 57 101 

Aigle, amour, automne, couple, delict, enfant, exemple ; foudre, 
gens, hymne, jujube, ceuvre, orge, orgue, Pdque, parallele, 
pendule,periode,personne, quelque chose, autre chose, reglisse, 
sentinelle, trompette, . . . . . 57 to 

A list of nouns which are used in either gender only on account 
of their different signification, .... 

Of Number in Nouns, 

Formation of the plural in nouns, .... 

" " " " ending in ant or ent, 

Of the nouns which have no plural, .... 

Of the plural in foreign nouns, 

" " proper names, 

" " " " representing two or more indi- 
viduals in the same family, 

Of the plural in proper names which have become common 
names, 

Of nouns which have no singular, ..... 

Of nouns of virtues and vices, and of those which represent ideas 
and sentiments in their abstract meaning, . . 67 

Of compound nouns. Formation of their plural, . . 68 

Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed of a noun 
and an adjective, 68 

Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed of two nouns, 69 
" " " " " " of two nouns 

separated by a preposition, ..... 69 

Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed either of a 
verb, a preposition, or an adverb, and a noun, 

Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed of two inde- 
clinable words, ... ... 

Of the functions of the noun in language, 

Of number in nouns which are the objects of another noun, 

Of cases in which two nouns united by the preposition de 
express the idea of a thing formed either by extraction 
or composition, ....... 

Of cases in which two nouns being separated by the prepo- 
sition de, the first expresses an idea either of capacity or 
agglomeration, ....... 

Of nouns governed by the preposition de, but not immediately 
preceded by another noun, 76 

Of nouns preceded, as determinative, by any preposition but de, 77 

Remarks on the preceding chapters, .... 79 

Questions on the noun, 81 

Of the Adjective, 83 



69 

70 
70 

72 



73 



74 



141 

142 
143 

144 

145 
146 

147 

148 to 149 

150 

151 

152 to 154 

155 

156, 157 

15S 
159 to 164 
165 to 168 



V11I CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 

Variation in the adjective, 84 170 

Of the Gender in the adjective, 85 

Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending with a mute e, 85 171 
" " " " ending with a vowel 

which is not a mute c, 85 172 

Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in an, ien, on, 85 173 
" " " " ending with a conso- 
nant which is neither m nor n, .... 86 174 
Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in c and d, 86 175 
" " « « ending in/, . . 86 176 
" " « « ending in g, . 86 177 
" " " " ending in el, eil, ol, ul, 

as, os,ot, 87 178 

Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in eur, teur, 

erieur, 87 179 

Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in x, . . 88 180 
Of adjectives having two terminations in the masculine, accord- 
ing as they are placed before a vowel or a consonant, 88 181 
Of adjectives which are used only in the masculine or in the 

feminine, 89 182 

Nouns and Adjectives of Number, . . 89 

A table of cardinal, ordinal, and collective numbers, . . 89 183 

Of numerical adjectives used in speaking of the dajs of the 

month, 90 184 

Of the numerical adjective onze, eleven, ... 91 185 

Of the formation of compound numbers, .... 91 186 
Of the numerical adjective one, with the words hundred and 

thousand, 91 187 

Of numerical adjectives used in poetry, music, games, &c. 91 188 

Of distributive and proportional numbers, ... 91 189 

Of Number in Adjectives, .... 92 190 

Of the formation of the plural in the adjectives vingt and cent, 93 191 

Of the numerical adjectives mille and mil, ... 93 192 

Remarks on the formation of the plural in several adjectives 94 193 

Of the Degrees of Signification in Adjectives, 95 194 

Comparison of equality, 95 195 

" " superiority and inferiority, . . . 96 196 

Of the adverbs more and less used as adverbs of quantity, 96 197 

Of the comparative adverbs better, worse, and less, . 96 198 
Of the superlatives, absolute and relative, ... 97 199,200 

Of the Place of Adjectives, .... 98 201 

Of adjectives which are invariably placed after the noun, 98 202 
Of adjectives which sometimes precede, and sometimes follow, 

the noun without changing their signification, . . 100 203 to 206 



CONTENTS. IX 

Page. Paragraph. 
Of adjectives which change entirely their signification by 

being placed before or after certain nouns, . . 101 207 

Of adjectives which are placed after the noun for the sake of 

euphony, 102 208 

Of the place of two or more adjectives qualifying the same 

noun, 102 209 to 212 

Of Adjectives considered in relation to other 

words, 103 213 

Of the Agreement of Adjectives, . . 103 214 

Of adjectives qualifying several nouns of the same gender, and 

united by the conjunction et, 103 215 

Of adjectives qualifying several nouns of different genders, 104 216 

" " " " " which are united by the 

conjunction et, 104 217 

Of adjectives qualifying several nouns and relating only to 

the last, 104 218 

Of adjectives preceded by several nouns separated by the 

conjunction ou, 105 219 

Of adjectives qualifying sometimes the first, sometimes the 
second noun, when it is preceded by several nouns sep- 
arated by the preposition d e, .... 105 220 
Of adjectives preceded by several nouns separated by any of 

the conjunctions ainsi que, aussi bien que, comme, avec, &c, 105 221 

Exceptions to the rules relating to the agreement of adjectives, 1.06 

Of the adjective feu, late, 106 222 

" « mm, naked, 106 223 

demi, half, ..... 106 224 

Of the adjectives excepte, passe, suppose, vu, y compris, franc 

deport, 107 225 

Of adjectives performing the parts of adverbs or nouns, 107 226 

Of the compound adjectives new-born, dead-drunk, &c. 108 227 

Of the gender of adjectives used with the word air, . 108 228 to 230 

Of the agreement of adjectives used in the superlative degree, 109 231 

Of adjectives as qualifying nouns of persons or things only, 110 232 

Of adjectives which are not susceptible of comparison, . 110 233 

Of Adjectives of Dimension, .... 110 234, 235 

Of the Adjective with the Article, . . 112 236 to 241 

Government of Adjectives, .... 214 242, 243 

Of adjectives preceded by the verb to be, used impersonally, 114 244 

A, un, repeated or not with two or several nouns united by 

the conjunction and, et, 115 245 

.A, un, repeated or not before two or several nouns separated 

by the conjunction ou, or, 115 246 

A, tin, repeated or not before two adjectives united by the con- 
junction and, pt. 115 247 



X CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 

A, un, repeated or not before two adjectives separated by the 

conjunction ou, or, . . . . . . 116 248 

Of a employed in English before a noun qualified or not by an 

adjective, as the attribute of the verb to be, . . 116 249,250 

Of a before a noun or a proposition used in apposition in 

English, 117 251 

Of a used in English after what, before a noun preceded or not 

by an adjective. 117 252 

Of a placed in English before a noun expressing measure or 

weight, 117 253 

Of a used in English before a noun expressing a period of time, 117 254 

Of a used in English before a noun preceded or not by an 
adjective, in an interrogative or affirmative sentence used 
negatively, 118 255 

Of the place of the adjective a, un, .... 118 256 

Of cases in which a or one is not expressed in French, . 119 257 

Of cases in which a may be expressed by the article the in 

French, . 119 258 

Questions on the adjective, 119 

Of the Pronoun. Its definition, .... 124 259 

Of Personal Pronouns. Their definition, . . 125 260 

Of the personal pronouns J, thou,he,$x.c, used as nominatives 

in sentences which are not interrogative, . . . 125 261 

Of personal pronouns used as nominatives in interrogative 

sentences, 125 262 

Of several cases in which personal pronouns used as nomina- 
tives are placed after the verb, although the sentence is 
not interrogative, 125 263 

Of personal pronouns used as nominatives in sentences ex- 
pressing a strong feeling of wonder, admiration, indig- 
nation, &c, 126 264 

Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, used 
after the verb to be in English, or preceding the defective 
verbs will, shall, ivould, could, &c, or any others used in 
their stead, in answer to a question, . . . 127 265 

Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, followed 

by an adjective in English, 128 266 

Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, used in 

distributive sentences, ..... 128 267 

Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, used in 

exclamative sentences, or in an apostrophe, . . 128 26S 

Of the personal nominative pronouns 1, thou, he, &c, used 
after than and as in a comparison of equality, superiority, 
or inferiority, 129 269 



CONTENTS. ' XI 

Page. Paragraph. 

Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, followed 

by a relative pronoun, 129 270 

How the personal nominative pronouns should be used in the 
construction of sentences, in order that no ambiguity 
should exist in reference to the noun to which those pro- 
nouns relate, 130 271 

Of sevei"al nominative pronouns joined by the conjunction and, 
et, and used together as the nominatives of the verb fol- 
lowing, 131 272 

Repetition of Personal Nominative Pronouns, 132 273 

Of the repetition of the personal nominative pronouns of the 

first and second persons singular and plural, . 133 274 

Of the repetition of the personal nominative pronouns of the 

third person singular and plural, .... 134 275 to 279 

Of Personal Pronouns used objectively, . 135 280 

Of personal pronouns used as direct objects of a verb, . 135 281, 282 

« " " as indirect objects of a verb, 137 283 

c< ee a ic a a a a gov- 

erning the preposition d, to, . . . . 137 284, 285 

Of reflected verbs governing the preposition d, to, . 138 286 

Of verbs which, being used in a certain signification, require 
the preposition d and the pronoun which it governs to be 
placed after them, 138 287 

Of verbs which, governing the preposition a, have for then- 

objects more than one pronoun, or a pronoun and a noun, 140 288 

Remarks on the use of objective pronouns with verbs govern- 
ing the preposition d in French, although this preposition 
is not expressed in English, 140 289 

Of personal pronouns used as indirect objects of a verb with 

any preposition except the preposition a, to, . . 142 290 

Of the personal pronouns him, her, and them, followed by a * 

relative pronoun preceded or not by a preposition, 143 291 to 294 

Of Reflected Pronouns, ..... 143 295 

-•' " " used with active verbs, and 

neuter verbs governing the preposition d, to, . 144 296, 297 

' )f reflected pronouns used with any other preposition than 

the preposition d, to, 144 298 

Of active and neuter verbs which, being used emphatically, 
require the reflected pronouns, moi-meme, toi-meme, lui- 
meme, &c, to be placed after them, whether they are 
reflected or not, 145 299 

Of the Reciprocal Pronouns each other and one 

another, 145 300 

Of the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another, employed 

with active verbs, ...... 146 301 



XII CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 

Of the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another , employed 

with neuter verbs governing (he preposition a, to, . 146 302 

Of the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another, employed 
with neuter verbs governing any other preposition than ' 
the preposition a, to, . . . . . 146 303 

Of the objective pronouns it and them, speaking of things, 

used as indirect objects of a verb, . . . 147 304, 305 

Of the objective pronouns it and them, speaking of things, pre- 
ceded by the prepositions a and de in French, whatever 
may be the preposition used in English instead of to 
ando/, . . 147 306,307 

Of the objective pronouns it and them, speaking of things, 
when they are preceded by any other preposition than de 
and d in French, 

Of the pronouns it and them, omitted in English in answering 
questions, but which should be expressed in French with 
the verbs of which they are the complement, 

Of the Expressions to it and there, omitted in English in 
answering questions, and which should be expressed in 
French with the verb of which they are the complement, 

Of the Pronouns itself and themselves, speaking of things, 

Of the pronouns one , s self, himself, and ourselves, used indefi- 
nitely, 

Repetition of personal objective pronouns, 

Of two Objective Pronouns governed by the same 
verb in all the tenses of that verb, except in the impera- 
tive mood used affirmatively, .... 

Of two objective pronouns used with a verb in the imperative 
mood employed affirmatively, 

Questions on the personal pronouns, 

Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns, . 
" " " " always joined to 

a noun, 161 334 

Of the possessive adjective pronouns our, your, and their, 
sometimes used in the singular, sometimes used in the 
plural, in French, according to the meaning of the sen- 
tence, 163 335 

Of the pronouns our and your, relating to one person alone, 163 335 (bis.) 

Of the agreement of the possessive adjective pronoun, . 164 336, 337 

Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun, . . 165 338 

" " « " " with two 

nouns united by the conjunction et, and, . . . 165 339 

Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun with two 

nouns separated by the conjunction ou, or, . . 165 340 



148 


308 to 314 


151 


315 to 319 


152 


320 


153 


321 to 323 


154 


324, 325 


155 


326, 327 


155 


328 to 330 


157 


331, 332 


157 




161 


333 



166 


341 


166 


342 


166 


343 



CONTENTS. XIII 

Page. Paragraph. 

Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun with two 
adjectives united by the conjunction et, and, 

Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun with two 
adjectives separated by the conjunction ou, or, 

Of the possessive adjective pronouns of the first person singu- 
lar with the nouns father, mother, child, &c. 

Of the difference existing between the personal pronoun leur, 
meaning to them, and the possessive adjective pronoun 
leur, meaning their, ...... 167 344 

Of the possessive adjective pronouns used in English before 
nouns expressing a part of the body, or anything belonging 
to our moral or physical constitution, . . . 167 345 

Of cases in which the article the alone should be used in 
French, instead of the English possessive pronoun, before 
nouns the signification of which has been explained in 
the preceding chapter, 168 346 

Of cases in which ambiguity would arise in a sentence by 
using the article the alone, instead of the English posses- 
sive pronoun, 

Of cases in which the possessive pronoun used in English 
should also be employed in French, 

Of cases in which a possessive pronoun, being used with a 
noun followed by a relative pronoun, is expressed in 
French by the article the, ..... 

Of the possessive adjective pronouns his and her, its and their, 
(applied to things,) 

Questions ou the possessive adjective pronouns, 

Of Possessive Pronouns which are never joined 
to a Noun, 

Of the iJiomatical expressions a, or that, friend of mine, of 
yaws, &c, 

Of the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, used with the 
verb to be, to express an idea of right, duty, or turn, 

Of the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, used with 
the verb to be, and conveying an idea of property, 

Of the English expressions of my own, of his own, &c. 

Questions on the possessive pronouns, 

Of Demonstrative Pronouns. Their definition, 

Of demonstrative pronouns always placed before a noun, 
" " which always follow a noun, 

" " which, relating to a noun used in 

a definite sense or preceded by the adjective a, always 
precede either a preposition or a relative pronoun, . 

Of demonstrative pronouns which, relating to nouns used defi- 
nitely or preceded by ihe adjective a, are never followed 



168 


347 


169 


348 to 351 


171 


352 


171 


353 to 353 


173 




174 


359 to 362 


177 


363, S64 


177 


365 


178 


3G6 


178 


367 


179 




179 


368 


180 


369, 370 


181 


371 


181 


372 to 380 



XIY CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 
either by a noun, a preposition, or a relative pronoun, 
and signify in English this one or that one, . . 185 381 

Of the demonstrative pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld, relating 

to one noun only, ...... 186 882 

Of the demonstrative pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld, relating 

to no noun already expressed, .... 186 383 

Of the demonstrative pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld, followed 

by a relative pronoun, 186 384, 385 

Of the demonstrative pronouns this and that, relating to an 
idea already expressed, or to things alluded to in an 
indefinite manner, ...... 187 386 

Of the Demonstrative Pronouns this, that, these, and 
those, and personal pronouns he, she, it, and they, used 
with the verb to be when this verb is followed either by 
a noun preceded by the or a in French, a personal pro- 
noun, or a verb, ...... 188 387, 388 

Of the use of the pronoun ce with the verb to be in interrogative 

sentences, 189 389 

Of the number of the verb to be, when, having the pronoun ce 
for its nominative, that verb is followed by several nouns 
in the singular, ....... 190 390, 391 

Of the number of the verb to be, when, having the pronoun ce 
tor its nominative, it is separated by a preposition from 
a noun in the plural, or from a personal pronoun in the 
third person plural, 190 392 

Of the expression si ce n'est, if it were not, followed by a 

plural noun, 191 393 

Of the nominative pronouns he, she, it, and they , used with the 
verb to be when that verb is either followed by an adjec- 
tive, a noun used as an adjective, (that is to say, not pre- 
ceded by the or a,) or by an adverb of qualification, . 191 394 to 396 

Of French idiomatical expressions in which ce is elegantly 
used with the verb to be, although it has no equivalent in 
English, 192- 397 

Of the compound English pronoun what, employed for that 
which, when used at the beginning of a sentence the 
second proposition of which begins with the verb to be, 193 398 to 402 

Of the pronoun ce used with the verb to be at the commence- 
ment of the second proposition of a sentence which does 
not begin with ce, 193 403 to 407 

Of the pronoun ce used as the antecedent of a relative pronoun 
preceded or not by a preposition, and expressed in Eng- 
lish by what, 194 408 

Ellipsis of the pronoun ce after the verb to be, or any other 
verb requiring that pronoun as its direct object, before 
the pronoun quoi, what, preceded by a proposition, 195 409 



196 


412 


197 




199 


413 


200 


414 


200 


415, 416 


200 


417 to 419 


201 


420 to 426 


203 


427 



CONTENTS. XV 

Page. Paragraph. 
Of the English pronoun which, used in answering a previous 

question, 195 410 

Of the English pronoun which, used after a comma, in the 

second proposition of a sentence, .... 196 411 

Of die pronoun which, used as a nominative at the head of an 
incidental proposition, and relating to several antecedents, 
requiring the verb following to be used in the plural in 
French, ........ 

Questions on the demonstrative pronouns, . 

Of Relative Pronouns. Their definition, . 

Of the relative pronoun who, ..... 

" " " that, 

" " " which, 

Of the compound relative pronouns of which, to which, at which, 
from which, through which, by which, with which, &c, 

Of the relative pronoun whom, 

" " preceded by the preposition 

of,de, . 204 428,429 

Of the relative pronoun whom, preceded by any other prepo- 
sition than of, de, 204 430,431 

Of the relative pronoun whose, 205 432, 433 

Remarks on the proper use of the relative pronouns in French, 206 

Of the relative pronoun qui not preceded by a preposition, 206 434 to 443 

" " que, 209 444 to 449 

" " le quel, la quelle, les quels, and les quelles, 210 450 to 452 

" " dont, 211 453 to 457 

" " quoi, 212 458,459 

** ou, . • . . . . 212 460 to 464 
Questions on the relative pronouns, . . . 214 

Of Absolute Pronouns. Their definition, . . 217 465 

Of the absolute pronoun who, 217 466 to 468 

" " " whom, 218 469 

« " " whose, 218 470 to 472 

" " " what, 219 473 

" " " used in interrogative sentences, 219 474 to 481 

" " " " used in exclamative sentences, 221 482 to 484 

" " " " used in affirmative sentences, 221 485 

« " « which, 222 486 to 491 

" « « where, 224 492 

Questions on the absolute pronouns, . . . 225 

Of Indefinite Pronouns. Their definition, . . 226 493 

Of indefinite pronouns which are never joined to a noun, 227 494 

Of the indefinite English expressions they, one, a man, a 

woman, somebody, people, vie, you, I, &c, . . 227 495,496 



XVI CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 

Of the pronoun on preceded either by et, ou, si, or que, 228 497 

Of the repetition of the pronoun on, .... 229 498,499 
Of the indefinite expressions some one, any one, somebody, 

anybody, one, a few, &c, 230 500, 501 

Of the indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, any person 

who, all those who, &c, 231 502 

Of the indefinite expressions everybody, every one, each, each 

one, every, &c., 231 503 to 510 

Of the indefinite expressions other people and others, . 234 511, 512 

" •« " each other, one another, 235 513 to 515 

" nobody, not one, none, no man, &c.,236 516 to 520 
" " " nothing, not anything, anything, 

&c, . . 238 521 to 526 

Of Indefinite Pronouns always joined to a Noun, 240 527 

Of the indefinite expressions some and any, . . . 240 528 

every and each, . . 240 529 to 532 
" " " whatever, whatsoever, any, any 

whatever, &c.,- 241 533 

Of the indefinite expressions certain, some, . . . 242 534 
Questions on the first two classes of indefinite pronouns, 242 
Of Indefinite Pronouns sometimes joined to a 

Noun, sometimes not, 244 535 

Of the indefinite expressions no, none, not one, no man, no 

woman, &c, 245 536 to 543 

Of the indefinite expression other, 247 544, 545 

Of the indefinite expressions both and either, . . 247 546, 547 

Of the indefinite expression neither, .... 248 548 to 552 

Of the indefinite expressions same, self, and the adverb even, 249 553 to 555 

Of the indefinite expression such, .... 251 556 to 559 

Of the indefinite expressions several and many, . . 252 560 to 562 
" " all, every, everything, although, 

very, however, he, 253 563 to 576 

Of the Indefinite Pronouns always followed 

BY que, 255 

Of the indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, whomever, &c, 255 577 to 580 

" " " irhatevcr, whatsoever, &c, 256 581 to 584 
Of the indefinite expression however, used either before an 

adjective, a past participle, or a qnalificative adverb, 257 585 to 588 
Of the indefinite expression although very, used either before 

an adjective, a past participle, or a qualificative adverb, 258 589 

Of the indefinite expression such as, .... 259 590 
Questions on the last two classes of indefinite pronouns, 259 

Of the Verb. Its definition, .... 262 591, 592 

Of numbers and persons in the verb, .... 263 593 to 596 



CONTENTS. 



XVII 



Pag s. 

Of the tenses of the verb, ...... 264 

Of the present, 265 

Of the imperfect, 26S 

Of the preterite definite, 271 

Of the preterite indefinite, ..... 274 

Of the pluperfect, 278 

Of the preterite anterior, ..... 280 
Analysis of several sentences, showing how the pupils should 
reason to ascertain which of the past tenses they should 

use, 281 

Of other ways of expressing the past by the verbs venir and 

aller, 284 

Of the forms of verbs which relate to the past, . . 285 

Of the future absolute, 285 

Of another way of expressing the future ; the verb aller, 286 

Of the future past, 286 

Questions on the verb, its tenses, up to the future past, 287 

Of Moods, 290 

Of the indicative mood, 291 

Of the conditional mood, 291 

Of the imperative mood, . . ... • . 292 

Of the subjunctive mood, and its present tense, . . 294 

Of the imperfect of the subjunctive, .... 295 

Of the preterite of the subjunctive, .... 295 

Of the pluperfect of the subjunctive, .... 295 

Of the infinitive mood, 296 

Of the present participle, 296 

Of the past participle, 296 

Recapitulation of all the moods and tenses, . . 297 
Of the different sorts of Verbs in reference 

to their Forms, 298 

Of the different sorts of Verbs in reference 

to their Functions in the Language, . 299 

Of auxiliary verbs, 299 

" active verbs, 299 

" passive verbs, 299 

" neuter verbs, 300 

" reflected verbs, 301 

" reciprocal verbs, 302 

" impersonal verbs, 302 

Of Conjugations, 302 

Of persons and numbers, ...... 303 

Of different sorts of conjugations, . . . 303 

Of Middle Verbs, 304 



Paragraph. 

597, 598 
599 to 608 
609 to 617 
618 to 621 
622 to 632 
633 to 635 

636, 637 



638 

639 
640 
641, 642 
643 
644 

645, 646 
647 
648 to 650 
651 to 654 
655 
656 
657 
658 
659 
660 
661 
662 

663 

664 
665 
666 
667 
668, 669 
670 to 673 
674 
675 
676 
677 
678 
679 



318 




320 


684 


320 


685 


321 


686 


321 


687 to 691 


323 


692 



XVIII CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 

Of a Choice between the Auxiliary Verbs avoir 

and etre, 310 680 

A list of neuter verbs which are always conjugated with etre, 310 681 

A list of neuter verbs which are sometimes conjugated with 
avoir, sometimes with etre, either according to custom or 
to the meaning of the sentences in which they are used, 311 682 

A list of neuter verbs which sometimes have an active meaning, 313 683 

Questions on the moods, the several kinds of verbs, and 
their conjugations, the middle verbs, and a choice 
between the auxiliaries avoir and etre, 

Of the Subject of the Verb, .... 

Place of the subject of the verb, .... 

" " " " " in interrogative sentences 

when the nominative is a pronoun, 

Place of the subject of the verb in interrogative sentences 
when the nominative is a noun, .... 

Place of the subject of the verb in a sentence used as a quota- 
tion, ......... 

Place of the subject of the verb in a sentence beginning with 

a verb in the subjunctive mood, . . . . 323 693 

Place of the subject of the verb when the verb is preceded by 
a relative pronoun which has for its antecedent the object 
of that verb, 323 694 

Of the place of the subject of the verb in impersonal sentences, 324 695 

Of the place of the subject of the verb in sentences beginning 
with any of the words tcl, ainsi, toujours, aussi, peut-etre, 
encore, en vain, vainement, clu moins and au moins, . 324 696 to 693 

Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative in 

reference to Number, .... 325 

Agreement of the verb with a single noun, . . . 325 699 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives 

several nouns united by et or ni, . . . 326 700 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives 

several nouns which have no conjunction between them, 326 701 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives 

several nouns separated by the conjunction on, . 326 702 

Of the number of the verb when, having for its nominatives 
several nouns, they are summed up by one of the words 
tout, rien, per sonne, &c., ..... 327 703 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives 
several nouns qualified by one of the indefinite pronouns 
tout, chaque, quelque, aucun, &c, . . . . 327 704 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative 
either of the indefinite expressions Vun et Vaulre or 
ni Pun ni Vautre. 327 705 



CONTENTS. XIX 

Page. Paragraph. 

Of the number of the verb whea it has for its nominatives 
several nouns the first two of which are separated by any 
of the expressions comme, ainsi que, de vicme que, avec, &c, S27 706 

Of the number of the verb when it has several nominatives 
the first two of which are separated by any of the expres- 
sions plutCt (pie, plus que, moins que, non settlement, Sac, 823 707 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives two 

verbs in the infinitive mood, 328 708 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative 

the expression plus d'un, ..... 329 709 

Of the Agreement of the Verb with Collective 
Nouns, ........ 329 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative a 
collective noun taken in a general sense and preceded by 
the article the in French, 329 710 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative a 

collective noun taken in a partitive sense . . 329 711,712 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative an 
adverb of quantity, or a noun used without being preceded 
by the or a, either of them being followed by a noun in 
the plural, 330 713, 714 

Of the number of the verb when preceded by the relative 

pronoun qui, 331 715, 716 

Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative the 

pronoun ce, 331 717 

Of several cases in which the verb should be used in the plural, 

although its nominative is in the singular, . . 831 718 

Questions on the agreement of the verb with its nominative 

in reference to number, 332 

Of the Agreement of the Verb with its Nomina- 
tive in reference to Persons, . . . 334 719 

Of the person in which the verb should be used when it has 
for its nominatives one or several nouns and one or more 
personal pronouns, or more than one pronoun only, 334 720, 721 

Of the agreement of the verb in reference to persons, when it 

has the relative pronoun qui for its nominative, . 335 722 

Of the relative pronoun qui preceded by an adjective, . 335 723 

" " " " having for its antecedent an ad- 

jective used as a noun, that is to say, preceded by the 
article the, or the adjective a, 335 724 

Of the relative pronoun qui having a noun for its antecedent, 336 725 

Of the Object of Veres, 336 726 

Of the Verb as an Oeject, .... 337 727 

Of verbs governing, without a preposition, the infinitive which 

follows them, 338 728 



XX 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Of verbs governing the preposition de before the infinitive 

which follows them, 338 

Of verbs governing the preposition d before the infinitive 

which follows them, 340 

Of verbs which, according to their signification, should be 
used without any preposition, or followed by d or de 

before an infinitive, 3-il 

Of verbs which should be followed either by de or a, according 
to euphony, ....... 

Of the Noun as the Object of a Verb, . 

Of two nouns or pronouns used as the indirect objects of a verb, 350 

Of the nature of the object to be given to a verb, . 

Of a noun used as the object of two verbs, 

Of the form of the several objects to be given to a verb, 

Of the place of the object of a verb, .... 

Of the place of several objects of a verb in reference to one 
another, ........ 

Of active verbs used without any object being expressed after 

them, 

Of the relation existing between passive verbs and their objects 
Of Pronouns used as the Objects of a Verb, 
Questions on the objects of verbs, .... 
Of the Use of the several Moods, 
Of the use of the subjunctive mood, .... 

Of cases in which the meaning of the first verb requires that 

the second should be used in the subjunctive mood, 
Of the subjilhctive mood with the verb to hope, esperer, 
" " " in negative sentences, . 

" " " in interrogative sentences, 

" " " with impersonal verbs, 

" " " with the impersonal verb il est 

probable, 

Of the subjunctive mood with the impersonal verb il semble, 
" " " with the expressions on disait, on 

croirait, on aurait dit, &c, ..... 
Of the subjunctive mood with the verbs entendre, pretendre, 

dire, supposer, and se plaindrc, .... 

Of the subjunctive mood with the verbs ordonner, commander^ 

resoudre, arreter, exiger, decider, &c, . 
Of the subjunctive mood with the conjunction si, and with que, 

used instead of si, 

Of the subjunctive mood after conjunctions ending with que, 
" " " at the beginning of a sentence, . 

" ** " after a superlative relative, . 



Paragraph. 
728 
730 

731 



348 


732 


349 


733 


350 


734 


351 


735 


351 


736 


352 


737 


352 


738 



739 



354 


740 


,354 


741 


354 


742 


354 




356 


743 to 745 


357 


746 


357 


747 


358 


748 


359 


749, 750 


360 


751, 752 


361 


753 


362 


754 


362 


755 to 757 


364 


758 


364 


759 


365 


7G0 


366 


761 to 764 


367 


765 


370 


766, 767 


370 


768, 769 



CONTENTS. XXI 

Page. Paragraph 

Of die subjunctive mood after the expressions le seul,V unique, 

le premier, and le dernier, ..... 372 770 

Of the subjuncthe mood after a noun preceded either by the 
article le or the adjective un, and followed by a relative 
pronoun, ........ 373 771 

Of the subjunctive mood after the indefinite pronouns qui que, 

quoi que, quel que, quelque que, and tout que, . . 374 772, 773 

Of the subjunctive mood after que used to avoid the repe- 
tition of a preceding conjunction, . . . 375 774 

Of conjunctions which sometimes govern the indicative and 

sometimes the subjunctive mood . . . 375 775 

Of the subjunctive mood after the verbs se douter and s'attendre, 375 776 

General remarks on the subjunctive mood, . 376 777 

Of the Correspondence existing between the several 
tenses of the indicative mood with each other and with 
those of the conditional, 377 778 

Of the Correspondence which should exist between the 
several tenses of the indicative and conditional moods, 
and those of the subjunctive, in order to express with 
the latter mood either a present, a past, a future, or a 
conditional, 379 779 

Of the Present and Preterite of the Subjunc- 
tive Mood. — What tense of the subjunctive should be 
used when the verb which is to be employed in that mood 
is preceded by a present in the indicative, . . 379 780, 781 

What tense of the subjunctive mood should be used when the 
verb which is to be employed in that mood is preceded 
by a future absolute in the indicative, . . . 380 782 

Cannot the present and the preterite of the subjunctive be used 

when the first verb is in the preterite indefinite 1 . 381 783 to 785 

Of the Imperfect and Pluperfect of the Sub- 
junctive Mood. — What tense of the subjunctive should 
be used when the verb which should be employed in that 
mood is preceded either by any of the past tenses or by 
one of the conditionals, ..... 381 7S6 

What tense of the subjunctive should be used when, the first 
verb being in the present, the second expresses either a 
conditional present, an imperfect, or a conditional past, 382 787 

What tense of the subjunctive should be used with any of the 
tenses of the indicative or conditional mood, when that 
verb expresses a fact which is always true, . 383 788 

Questions on the indicative, conditional, imperative, and 

subjunctive moods, 384 

Of the Infinitive Mood, 386 789 



XXII CONTENTS. 

Page. Paraqrapr 

Can a verb be governed by another in the infinitive mood 
when that verb does not relate either to a noun or pro- 
noun already expressed in the sentence 1 . . 387 790 

Can a verb always be governed by another in the infinitive 
mood when that verb has an antecedent already ex- 
pressed in the same sentence 1 387 791, 792 

Remarks on the use of the infinitive mood, . . . 389 793,794 

Of cases in which euphony requires that the indicative or 

subjunctive mood should be preferred to the infinitive, 390 795 

Of the Present Participle, .... 391 796 

Of the difference existing between a present participle and the 

same word used as an adjective, .... 391 797, 798 

Observations, 392 799, 800 

Of present participles which are never used as adjectives, 394 801 
" " " whose corresponding adjectives, although 
having the same pronunciation, have a different orthogra- 
phy, 394 802 

General indications serving as a guide in order to ascertain 

whether a word ending in ant is a present participle or not, 394 803 to 806 

Of the Past Participle, 395 807 

" " " used without any auxiliary, 395 808 

" " " used with the verb etre, either 

in passive or neuter verbs, 396 809 

Of die past participle used widi the verb avoir in active verbs, 396 810 to 812 
" " « " « « " in neuter verbs, 39S 813 

" " " used with the auxiliary verb etre in 

reflected verbs, 398 814 

Of the past participle of verbs which are never used except 

in the reflected form, 399 815 

Of the past participle of reflected verbs originating from 

neuter verbs, . .... 400 816, 817 

Remarks and Illustrations on the Rules in re- 
gard to Past Participles, .... 401 818 

Of the past participles of verbs which are either active or 

neuter, according to their signification, . . 402 819 

Of the past participle followed by an adjective or another 

past participle, 404 820, 821 

Of the past participle followed by the nominative of the verb, 405 822 

" ' " " by an infinitive which is itself 

preceded by a preposition, .... 405 823 

Of the past participle immediately followed by a verb in the 

present tense of the infinitive mood, . . . 406 824 to 826 

Of the past participles which, being placed at the end of a 

sentence, have an infinitive understood after them, 409 827 

Of the past participle of the verb /aire followed by an infinitive, 410 828 



CONTENTS. XXIII 

Page. Paragraph. 
Of the past participle preceded and followed by que, . 410 829 

« " " " by lui or lettr, used instead of 

le,la,les, . ... 411 ~ 830 

Of the past participle preceded by le representing a member 

of a sentence, ....... 412 831 

Of the past participle preceded by the pronoun en in sentences 
either affirmative, negative, or interrogative, when that 
prououn is not preceded by an adverb of quantity, . 412 832 

Of die past participle preceded by the pronoun en in sentences 
expressing either interrogation or doubt, when that pro- 
noun is either preceded or followed by an adverb of 

quantity, 413 833 

Of die past participle preceded by the pronoun en in affirma- 
tive and exclamative sentences, when that pronoun is 
preceded by an adverb of quantity, . . . 414 834 

Of die past participle preceded by a noun which is itself 

preceded by an adverb of quantity followed by de , . 416 835 

Of the past participle used with impersonal verbs, . 418 836 

" " " preceded by several nouns separated 

either by a preposition or a conjunction, and agreeing 
only with one, ...... 

Of the past participle with the adverb lepeu, 
Of the past participles coute, valu, and pese, . 

of the reflected verbs se doutcr, s'aperce- 
voir, s'attaqver, s'emparer, s'abstenir, s'echapper, se batir, 
se louer, se demolir, and se vendre, . . . 420 841, 842 

Questions on the infinitive mood, and the present and past 

participles, 

Of Prepositions, 

Classification of prepositions, ... 

A list of prepositions classified according to their object, 
Of prepositions considered in regard to their signification, 
" " having reference to place, . 

" " denoting order and arrangement, 

n " " union and connection, . 

" " " separation, • 

" " " opposition, .... 

" " " the end which the mind has in view, 432 

" " " the cause and means which the mind 

has in view, ....... 

Of the prepositions de, a, and en, .... 

Of the difference existing between adverbs and prepositions, 
Of prepositions having the privilege of governing other prep- 
ositions, 



417 


837, 838 


418 


839 


419 


841 



422 




425 


843 


426 


844 


427 


845 to 847 


428 


848 


429 


849 


430 


850 


430 


851 


431 


852 


431 


853 


432 


854 


432 


855 


432 


856 to 861 


436 


862 to 866 


438 


867 to 872 



XXIV CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 
Remarks on the prepositions void and wild, pendant and du- 

rant, avant and devant, 440 873 to 875 

Of nouns governed by two prepositions, . . . 441 876 

Of the use of the article after prepositions, . . 441 877 to 880 

Of the repetition of prepositions, 443 881,882 

Of the place of prepositions, 443 883,884 

Remarks, 444 885 

Questions on prepositions, . 445 

Of Adverbs, 446 886 to 888 

Of the difference existing between an adverb and a preposition, 447 889 

Of adjectives performing the functions of adverbs, . 448 890 

Of adverbs performing the functions of nouns, . . 448 891 
Of a few adverbs which, like prepositions, are sometimes 

followed by an object, ..... 449 892 

Of the different sorts of adverbs, . . - . . . 449 893 
Of the adverbs of the first class, that is to say, expressing 

either affirmation, doubt, or negation, . . . 450 894 to 896 
Of the second class of adverbs, including the adverbs of 

manner, .... ... 450 897 to 905 

Of the third class of adverbs; adverbs of order and rank, 453 906 

Remarks on the adverb then, 453 907 to 910 

Of adverbs of place and distance, 454 911,912 

Of adverbs of time, 455 913 to 915 

" " " quantity, 456 916, 917 

" " « comparison, 457 918, 919 

Of the place of the adverb in reference to the verb, . 457 920,921 
" " of adverbs of arrangement, as well as those which 

designate time in a fixed and determinate manner, 458 922 
Of the place of adverbs composed of one syllable when used 

with a verb in the present of the infinitive, . . 458 923 

Of adverbs which are always placed before the verb, . 458 924 

Of the place of adverbs in reference to adjectives, . 459 925 

" " " " " to other adverbs, . 459 926, 927 

Remarks on adverbs of quantity, .... 460 928 to 944 

Further remark i on adverbs of quantity, . . . 467 945 to 955 

Of the negative Adverb ne, . . . . 469 956 

What is the place of the negative words 1 469 957 to 959 
When is it that pas ought to be preferred to point, and vice 

versd ? 470 960 to 962 

When is it that we may with elegance and propriety suppress 

either pas or point ? 471 963 

Of cases in which pas or point ought to be sup- 
pressed, . 472 

Of cases in which the negation is sufficiently expressed by 



CONTENTS. 



XXV 



words which restrict the signification of the verb in a 
manner either relative or absolute, .... 

Of cases in which the negation is accompanied by words 
expressing the smallest part of a whole. 

Of cases in which the negation is accompanied by the conjunc- 
tion nt, ........ . 

Of cases in which the signification of the verb is restricted by 
the words ne que, signifying generally but or only, 

Of cases in which a verb is preceded by que used instead of 
why, pourquoi, ....... 

Of cases in which a verb is preceded by d moins que, or si, 
having the meaning of unless, . 

Of cases in which either of the expressions il y a or depuis que 
are followed by a verb used either in the preterite indef- 
inite, the pluperfect, or the preterite anterior, 

Of cases in which a verb is preceded by a comparative either 
of superiority or inferiority, or by any of the following 
expressions, autre, autr entente peu, &c, . 

Of cases in which either of the verbs douter, desesperer, nier, 
disconvenir, empecker, prendre garde, craindre, and others 
of a similar nature, is employed in the first part of a sen- 
tence, 

Of cases in which the verb savoir? used negatively, means 
either to be unable? to be ignorant of, or not to know, 

Questions on the adverbs, 

Of Conjunctions, 

Of conjunctions considered in reference to their significat 

Of the use and different modes of employing the conjunction 

Of the object of conjunctions, 

Of conjunctions governing the infinitive mood, 
" " " the indicative mood, 

" the subjunctive mood, 

Place of conjunctions, 

Questions on conjunctions, 

Of Interjections, 

Questions on interjections, 

Grammatical Construction, 

Construction of affirmative sentences, 
" " interrogative sentences, 

" imperative sentences, 

Of inversions, 

Of ellipsis, 

Of pleonasm, 

Of syllepsis, ...... 



Page. 


Paragraph. 


472 


964, 965 


473 


966 


473 


967 


474 


968 


474 


969 


475 


970 



475 



475 



971, 972 



973, 974 



476 


975 to 978 


477 


979 


478 




481 


980 


ion, 482 


983 


que, 483 


984 to 1002 


487 


1003 


487 


1004, 1005 


488 


1006, 1007 


489 


1008 


489 


1009 


490 




491 


1010 to 1023 


493 




494 


1024 


494 


1025 to 102S 


495 


1029 


496 


1030 


497 


1031 to 1036 


499 


1037, 1038 


500 


1039 to 10-11 


502 


10-12 



XXVI CONTENTS. 

Page. Paragraph. 
Of Grammatical Discordances, . . 503 1043 

Of discordances, » . 503 1044,1045 

Of amphibologies, 504 1046 to 1049 

Of Gallicisms, 505 1050 to 1054 

Questions on grammatical construction, discordances, and 

Gallicisms, 507 

Conjugation of Verbs, 510 

" of the verb avoir, . . . 510 1055 

" " " y avoir, (there to be,) . 514 1056 

" " " tore, ..... 516 1057 

" of the regular verbs, ... 520 1058 to 1077 

Questions on the manner of conjugating regular verbs, 527 

Conjugation of the verb aimer; first conjugation, . . 529 1078 

Questions to be asked for the conjugation of any regular 

verb, 528 

Remarks on the first conjugation, ..... 533 1079 

Conjugation of the verbs ending in eter, eler, ger, eer, cer, yer, ier, 534 1080 to 1093 

Questions on the verbs of the first conjugation, . 540 

Conjugation of the verb finir; second conjugation, . . 540 1094,1095 

Questions on the verbs of the second conjugation, . 545 

Conjugation of the verb recevoir; third conjugation, . 545 1096 to 1098 

Questions on the verbs of the third conjugation, . 550 

Conjugation of the verb rendre; fourth conjugation, . . 550 1099 to 1102 

Questions on the verbs of the fourth conjugation, . 556 

Conjugation of the passive verbs, ..... 556 1103 

" of pronominal verbs, .... 561 1104 

of reflected verbs, 562 1105,1106 

A list of verbs which are reflected in French, although they 

do not assume that form in English, . . . 563 1107 

Questions on pronominal verbs, 564 

Conjugation of the reflected verb s'aimer, . . . 565 1108 

A LIST OF ALL THE IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS, ARRANGED 
IN ALPHABETIC ORDER, AND SHOWING THE PAGE WHERE THEY ARE CONJU- 
GATED. 

A. 

Page. 

Abattre, to pull down, to throw down, to feel, . like Battre, 594 

S'abattre, e., to fall down, " 594 

Absoudre, to absolve, Resoudre, 605 

S'abstenir, e., to abstain, to refrain, .... Tenir, 584 

Abstraire, to abstract, Traire, 606 

Accourir, a., e., to run to, to hasten to, . . . Courir, 578 

Accroire, to make one believe, ..... Croire, 596 

Accroitre, a., e., to increase, to accrue, to augment, . Croitre, 597 

S'accroitre, e., « « " . « 597 



CONTENTS. 



XXVII 



Acceuillir, to welcome, 
Acquerir, to acquire, 
Adjoindre, to associate, to adjoin 
Admettre, to admit, . 
Aller, e., to go, . 
S'en aller, e., to go away, 
Apparaitre, a., e., to appear, 
Appartenir, to belong, 
Apprendre, to learn, 
Assaillir, to assault, 
Asseuir, 
S'asseoir, e 

c,, '• a > to sit down, 
o assoir, e, } 

Astreindre, to subject, . 

S'astreindre, e., to confine one's 

Atteindre, to overtake, to reach, 

Attraire, to allure, to entice, 

JLuemdre, to take out, to fetch out 

Avenir, e., to happen, to chance, 

Avoir, to have, 

Y avoir, there to be, 



I to sit down, 



self, 



Battre, to beat, to strike, 
Se battre, e., to fight, 
Boire, to drink, 
Bouillir, to boil, 
Braire, to bray, 
Bruiner, to drizzle, . 
Bruire, to roar, 



Ceindre, to gird, 

Choir, e., to fall, 

Circonscrire, to circumscribe, 

Circonvenir, to circumvent, . 

Cfore, to shut, to close, 

Combattre, to fight, 

Commettre, to commit, 

Comparaitre, to appear, 

Complaindre, to complain to, 

Complaire, to comply, . 

£e complaire, e., to delight, 

Comprendre, to understand, , 

Compromettre, to compromise, 

$e compromettre, c., to expose one's self, 





Page. 


Cueillir, 


579 


Acquerir, 


576 


Joindre, 


599 


Mettre, 


600 


Aller, 


570 


S'en aller, 


571 


Paraitre, 


602 


Tenir, 


■584 


Prendre. 


603 


Assaillir, 


577 


S'asseoir, 


586 


Assoir, 


587 


Joindre, 


599 


" 


599 


« 


599 


Traire, 


606 


Joindre, 


599 


Tenir, 


584 


Avoir, 


510 


Y avoir, 


514 


Battre, 


594 


" 


594 


Boire 


595 


Bouillir, 


577 


Traire, 


606 


Neiger, 


576 


Reduire, 


604 


Joindre, 


599 


Dechoir, 


587 


Ecrire, 


598 


Tenir, 


584 


Clore, 


595 


Battre, 


594 


Mettre, 


600 


Paraitre, 


602 


Joindre, 


599 


Plaire, 


603 


« 


603 


Prendre, 


603 


Mettre, 


600 


" 


600 



XXVIII 



CONTENTS. 



Conclure, to conclude, Conclure, 

Concuurir, to concur, Courir, 

Conduire, to conduct, Reduire, 

Confire, to preserve, Confire, 

Conjoindre, to conjoin, Joindre, 

Connaitre, to know, Paraitre, 

Conquerir, to conquer, . . . . • . Acquerir, 

Consentir, to consent, Sentir, 

Construire, to construct, to build, .... Reduire, 

Contenir, to contain, Tenir, 

Se contenir, e., to refrain, 

Contraindre, to constrain, Joindre, 

Contredire, Dire, 

Contrefaire, to counterfeit, Faire, 

Contrevenir, to infringe, Tenir, 

Convaincre, to convince, Vaincre, 

Convenir, a., e., to suit, to fit, . . . . . Tenir, 

Corrompre, to corrupt, ' . Rompre, 

Coudre, to sew, Coudre, 

Courir, to run, Courir, 

Couvrir, to cover, . . . . . . . Ouvrir, 

Craixdre, to fear, Joindre, 

Croire, to believe, Croire, 

Se croire, e., to rely upon one's own judgment, . . " 

Croitre, a., e., to grow, . .... Croitre, 

Cueillir, to gather, Cueillir, 

Cuire, to cook, to bake, Reduire, 

D. 

Debattre-, to debate, Battre, 

Se debattre, e., to struggle, ..... " 

Dechoir, a., e., to decay, Dechoir, 

Deconfire, to defeat totally, Confire, 

Deconstruire, to take to pieces, ..... Reduire, 

Decoudre, to rip, Coudre, 

Decouvrir, to discover, Ouvrir, 

Deoire, to describe, Ecrire, 

Decroitre, a., e., to decrease, ... . . Croitre, 

Dedire, to disown, .... . . Dire, 

Se dedire, e., to retract, .... . . " 

Deduire, to deduct, Reduire, 

Defaillir, to fail, to faint, Faillir, 

Defaire, to undo, to defeat, Faire, 

Se defaire, e., to part with, to get rid of, " 

Dejoindre, to disjoin, ...... Joindre, 

Dementir, to contradict, to belie, ..... Sentir, 



Pagb. 
595 
578 
604 
596 
599 
602 
576 
583 
604 
584 
584 
599 
597 
598 
584 
607 
584 
605 
596 
578 
582 
599 
596 
596 
597 
579 
604 



594 
594 

587 
596 
604 
596 
5S2 
598 
597 
597 
597 
604 
580 
598 
598 
599 
583 



CONTENT? 



Se dementir, £., to belie one's self 5 . 

Demettre, e., to disjoint, .... 

Se demettre, e., to resign, 

Departir, to distribute, to share, 

/S*e departir, e., to depart, 

Depeindre, to describe, .... 

Deplaire, to displease, .... 

Se deplaire, e., to be displeased with, 

Depourvoir, to deprive, 

Desapprendre, to unlearn, 

Desservir, to clear a table, to do an ill office 

Deteindre, to discolor, .... 

Detenir, to detain, .... 

Detruire, to destroy, .... 

Se detruire, e., to kill one's self, . 

Devenir, e., to become, .... 

Devetir, e., to strip, to undress, 

Se devetir, e., to leave off part of one's clothes 

Dire, to say, to tell, 

Disconvenir, e., to deny, 

Discourir, to discourse, 

Disjoindre, to disjoin, 

Dispo.raitre, a., e., to 

Dissoudre, to dissolve, .... 

Se dissoudre, e., to dissolve, to be dissolved, 

Distraire, to distract, to divert, 

Dormir, to sleep, ..... 



XXIX 



E. 

S'ebatlre, e., to take one's pleasure, 

Echoir, e., to happen, to chance, to fall to, to injure 

Eclair er, to lighten, 

Eclore, e., to come to life, to hatch, to blossom, 
Econduire, to refuse, to discard in a polite manm 
Ecrire, to write, 
Elire, to elect, to choose, 
Emettre, to express, to set forth, 
Emoudre, to sharpen, . 
Emouvoir, to move, 
S'emouvoir, e., to be moved, 
Empreindre, to imprint, 
Enceindre, to enclose, . 
Enclore, to surround, 
Encourir, to incur, 
Endormir. to cause to sleep, 
C* 





Page. 


it 


583 


Mettre, 


600 


a 


600 


Sentir, 


583 


cc 


583 


Joindre, 


599 


Plaire, 


603 


a 


603 


Pourvoir, 


59!) 


Prendre, 


603 


Servir, 


5S3 


Joindre, 


599 


Tenir, 


584 


Reduire, 


604 


« 


604 


Tenir, 


584 


Vetir, 


585 


« 


585 


Dire, 


597 


Tenir, 


584 


Courir, 


578 


Joindre, 


599 


Paraitre, 


603 


Resoudre, 


605 


(C 


605 


Traire, 


606 


Dormir, 


579 


Battre, 


594 


Dechoir, 


587 


Neiger, 


576 


Clore, 


595 


Reduire, 


604 


Ecrire, 


598 


Lire, 


600 


Mettre, 


600 


Moudre, 


601 


Mouvoir, 


589 


te 


589 


Joindre, 


599 


" 


599 


Clore, 


595 


Courir, 


577 


Dormir, 


579 



XXX 



CONTENTS. 



S'endormir, e., to fall asleep, 
Enduire, to plaster, 
Enfreindre, to transgress, 
S'enfuir, to run away, 
Enjoindre, to enjoin, 
S'enquerir, to inquire, 
S'entremettre, to interpose, 
Entreprendre, to undertake, 
Entretenir, to entertain, 
S'entretenir, e., to discourse with, 
Entrevoir, to glimpse at, 
S'entrevoir, e., to see each other, 
Entrouvrir, to open a little, . 
Envoy er, to send, 
S'eprendre, e., to be smitten, 
Equivaloir, to be equivalent, 
Eteindre, to extinguish, 
jE<re, to be, .... 
Etreindre, to bend close, 
Exclure, to exclude, 
Extraire, to extract, 



Faillir, to fail, 

Faire, to do, to make, . 

Falloir, to be necessary, (must,) 

Feindre, to feign, 

Fleurir, to blossom, to flourish, 

Forclore, to debar, 

Forfaire, to trespass, 

.FnVe, to fry, 

.Fwir, to run away, to fly, 



Geindre, to whine, to moan, 
Gesir, to lie, . 
Greler, to hail, 
Gresiller, to rime, . 



G. 





Page. 


Dormir, 


579 


Reduire, 


604 


Joindre, 


599 


Fuir, 


580 


Joindre, 


599 


Acquerir, 


576 


Mettre, 


600 


Prendre, 


603 


Tenir, 


584 


tt 


584 


Voir, 


593 


« 


593 


Ouvrir, 


582 


Envoyer, 


573 


Prendre, 


603 


Valoir, 


592 


Joindre, 


599 


Etre, 


516 


Joindre, 


599 


Conclure, 


595 


Traire, 


606 


Faillir, 


580 


Faire, 


598 


Falloir, 


589 


Joindre, 


599 


Fleurir, 


580 


Clore, 


598 


Faire, 


598 


Frire, 


599 


Fuir, 


580 


Joindre, 


599 


Gesir, 


581 


Neiger, 


576 


(C 


576 



H. 

Hair, to hate, Hair, 



581 



I. 

Importer, to matter, to import, 

Induire, to induce, 

Inscrire, to inscribe, .... 

S'inscrire, e., to enter one's name on a register. 



Neiger, 

Reduire, 

Ecrire, 



576 
604 



CONTENTS. 



XXXI 



Instruire, to instruct, ...... Reduire, 

Interdire, to interdict, ...... Dire, 

Interrompre, to interrupt, . . .... Rompre, 

Intervenir, to intervene, . .... Tenir, 

Introduire, to introduce, Reduire, 

J. 

Joindre, to join, Joindre, 

Se joindre, to unite, ...... " 

L. 

Lire, to read, Lire, 

Luire, to shine, to glitter, Reduire, 

M. 

Maintenir, to maintain, Tenir, 

Se maintenir, e., to keep up, " " 

Malfaire, to do mischief, Faire, 

Maudire, to curse, Dire, 

Meconnaitre, to disown, to forget, to neglect, &c. , . Paraitre, 

Se meconnaitre, e., to forget one's self, ... " 

Medire, to slander, . . . . . . Dire, 

Mentir, to lie, to tell a lie, Sentir, 

Se meprendre, e., to mistake, ..... Prendre, 

Mettre, to put, to place, Mettre, 

Moudre, to grind, (grain,) ..... Moudre, 

Mourir, e., to die, Mourir, 

Se mourir, e., to be dying, " 

Mouvoir, to move, ....... Mouvoir, 

Se mouvoir, e., to move, ..... * s 

N. 

Naitre, e., to be born, ...... Naitre, 

Neiger, to snow, Neiger, 

Nuire, to hurt, to do an ill office, Reduire, 

O. 

Obtenir, to obtain, Tenir, 

Offrir, to offer, Ouvrir, 

S'offrir, e., to offer one's self, .... " 

Oindre, to anoint, Joindre, 

Omettre, to omit, Mettre, 

Ouir, to hear, Ouir, 

Ouvrir, to open, Ouvrir, 



Page. 
604 
597 
605 
584 
604 



600 
604 



584 
584 
598 
597 
603 
603 
597 
583 
603 
600 
601 
581 
581 



601 
576 
604 



582 
599 
600 

582 



XXXII 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 



P. 



Paitre, to graze, .... 

Parfaire, to perfect, 

Paraitre, to appear, 

Parcourir, to run over, 

Partir, a., e., to set out, 

Parvenir, e., to arrive, to succeed, to reach 

Peindre, to paint, 

Permettre, to permit, 

Plaindre, to pity, .... 

Seplaindre, e., to complain, 

Plaire, to please, ..... 

Pleuvoir, to rain, 

Poindre, to dawn, to shoot forth, . 

Poursuivre, to pursue, 

Pourvoir, to provide, .... 

Se pourvoir, e., to provide one's self, 

Pouvoir, to be able, .... 

Predire, to foretell, 

Prendre, to take, .... 

Prescrire, to prescribe, 

Se prescrire, e., to lose by prescription, . 

Pressentir, to foresee, 

Prevaloir, to prevail, .... 

Se prevaloir, e., to take advantage, . 

Prevenir, to anticipate, to prevent, 

Prevoir, to foresee, .... 

Produire, to produce, .... 

Se produire, e., to put one's self forward, 

Promettre, to promise,. 

Se promettre, e., to hope for, 

Promouvoir, to promote, 

Proscrire, to proscribe, 

Provenir, to proceed from, 



Paitre, 


602 


Faire, 


59S 


Paraitre, 


602 


Courir, 


577 


Sentir, 


583 


Tenir, 


584 


Joindre, 


599 


Mettre, 


600 


Joindre, 


599 


cc 


599 


Plaire, 


603 


Pleuvoir, 


590 


Poindre, 


603 


Suivre, 


606 


Pourvoir, 


590 


cc 


590 


Pouvoir, 


590 


Dire, 


597 


Prendre, 


603 


Ecrire, 


598 


cc 


598 


Sentir, 


5S3 


Valoir, 


592 


cc 


592 


Tenir, 


584 


Voir, 


593 


Reduire, 


604 


cc 


604 


Mettre, 


600 


cc 


600 


Mouvoir, 


589 


Ecrire, 


598 


Tenir, 


584 



Qu6rir, to go and fetch, to send for, 



Q. 



R. 



Acquerir 



Rabattre, to abate, to beat down, Battre, 

Se rabattre, e., to turn about, .... " 

Rapprendre, to learn again, ...... Prendre, 

Rasseoir, to set down again, ..... Asseoir, 

Se rasseoir, e., to sit down again, .... " 

Rebattre, to beat again, ...... Battre, 



576 



594 
594 
603 
586 
586 
594 



CONTENTS. 



Reboire, to drink again, 

Rcbouillir, to boil again, . 

Rechoir, to fall again, 

Reclure, to shut up, .... 

Rtconduire, to conduct back again, 

Reconnaitre, to recognize, 

Se reconnaitre, e., to recognize one's self, 

Reconquerir, to reconquer, 

Reconstruire, to build again, 

Recov.dre, to sew again, . 

Recourir, to have recourse, . 

Recouvrir, to cover again, 

Recrire, to write over again, 

Recroitre, to grow again, 

Recueillir, to gather, to reap, 

Se recueillir, e., to recollect one's self, 

Recuire, to bake again, 

Redefaire, to undo again, 

Redevenir, e., to become again, 

Redire, to say again, .... 

Redormir, to sleep again, . 

Reduire, to reduce, 

Se reduire, e., to amount to, . . 

Refaire, to make again, . 

Se refaire, e., to recover, 

Refleurir, to blossom again, 

Refrire, to fry again, .... 

Regeler, to freeze again, .... 

Rejoindre, to join again, 

Retire, to read over again, 

Reluire, to glitter, to shine, 

Remettre, to remit, to replace, 

»S'e remettre, e., to recover, 

S'en remettre, e., to refer a thing to somebody 

Remoudre, to grind over again, 

Renaitre, to revive, .... 

Rendormir, to fall to sleep again, 

Se rendormir, e., to fall asleep again, 

Renduire, to plaster anew, 

Rentraire, to darn, .... 

Rcnvoyer, to send back, . 

Repaitre, to feed, .... 

»S'e repaitre, to delight in, . . 

Reparaitre, to "eappear, . . 

Rjepartir, e., ..... 





XXXIII 




Page. 


Boire, 


595 


Bouillir, 


577 


Dechoir, 


587 


Conclure, 


595 


Reduire, 


604 


Paraitre, 


602 


a 


602 


Acquerir, 


576 


Reduire, 


604 


Coudre, 


596 


Courir, 


577 


Ouvrir, 


582 


Ecrire, 


593 


Croitre, 


597 


Cueillir, 


579 


(C 


579 


Reduire, 


604 


Faire, 


598 


Tenir, 


584 


Dire, 


597 


Dormir, 


579 


Reduire, 


604 


CjS 


604 


Faire, 


598 


(C 


598 


Fleurir, 


580 


Frire, 


599 


Neiger, 


576 


Joindre, 


599 


Lire, 


600 


Reduire, 


604 


Mettre, 


600 


" 


600 


(C 


600 


Moudre, 


601 


Naitre, 


601 


Dormir, 


579 


« 


579 


Reduire, 


604 


Traire, 


606 


Envoyer, 


575 


Paitre, 


602 


cc 


602 


Paraitre, 


602 


Sentir, 


583 



XXXIV 



CONTENTS. 



Repeindre, to paint again, 

Se repentir, e., to repent, 

Reprendre, to retake, 

Se reprendre, e., to correct one's self, 

Reproduire, to reproduce, 

Requerir, to request, 

Resoudre, to resolve, 

*Se resoudre, e., to resolve, 

Ressentir, to resent, 

Se ressentir, e., to feel still, 

Ressortir, a., e., to go out again, 

Se ressouvenir, e., to remember, 

Restreindre, to restrain, 

Resulter, a., e., to follow, to result, 

Retenir, to retain, to detain, 

Se retenir, e., to forbear, to stop, 

Retraire, to redeem an estate, 

Revaloir, to repay, 

Revenir, e., to come back, 

Revetir, to clothe, to dress, 

Se revetir, e., to put on one's clothes, 

Re'dvre, to revive, 

Revoir, to see again, 

Rire, to laugh, .... 

Se rire, £., to laugh at, 

Rompre, to break, . 

Se rompre, e., to break, 

Rouvrir, to reopen, 



Saillir, to project, to gush out, 

Satisfaire, to satisfy, 

Savoir, to know, 

Secourir, to succor, to help, 

>Se secourir, e., to help one another, 

Seduire, to seduce, ... 

Sentir, to feel, to smell, 

(Seoi'r, to fit, to fit well, 

Servir, to serve, to be in use, 

Se servir, e., 

Sortir, a., e., to go out, 

Souffrir, to suffer, 

Soumettre, to submit, 

Se soumettre, e., to submit one's self, 

Sourire, to smile, .... 





Page. 


Joindre, 


599 


Sentir, 


583 


Prendre, 


603 


« 


603 


Reduire, 


604 


Acquerir, 


576 


Resoudre, 


605 


« 


605 


Sentir, 


583 


K 


583 


« 


583 


Tenir, 


584 


Joindre, 


599 


Neiger, 


576 


Tenir, 


584 


(C 


584 


Traire, 


606 


Valoir, 


592 


Tenir, 


584 


Vetir, 


585 


cc 


585 


Vivre, 


607 


Voir, 


593 


Rire, 


605 


cc 


605 


Rompre, 


605 


cc 


605 


Ouvrir, 


582 



Assaillir, 


577 


Faire, 


598 


Savoir, 


591 


Courir, 


578 


cc 


578 


Reduire, 


604 


Sentir, 


583 


Seoir, 


591 


Servir, 


583 


cc 


583 


Sentir, 


583 


Ouvrir, 


582" 


Mettre, 


600 



Rire, 



605 



CONTENTS. 



Souscrire, to subscribe, Ecrire, 

Soustraire, to subtract, Traire, 

Se soustraire, e., to avoid, to escape, ... " 

Soutenir, to maintain, to support, ..... Tenir, 

Se soutenir, e., to stand up, " 

Se souvenir, e., to remember, " 

Subvenir, to assist, to relieve, " 

Suffire, to be sufficient, Confire, 

Suivre, to follow, ....... Suivre, 

S'ensuivre, e., to follow from, " 

Surcroitre, to grow out, Croitre, 

Surf aire, to exact, to ask too much, .... Faire, 

Surprendre, to surprise, ...... Prendre, 

Surseoir, to supersede, to put off, ..... Surseoir, 

Survenir, e., to befall, to happen, . ... Tenir, 

Survivre, to survive, ....... Vivre, 

T. 

Taire, to conceal, to keep secret, .... Plaire, 

Se taire, £., to keep silent, " 

Teindre, to dye, to color, ..... Joindre, 

Tenir, to hold, Tenir, 

Se tenir, e., to stand, " 

S'en tenir, e., to abide by, " 

Tonner, to thunder, ...... Neiger, 

Traduire, to translate, to bring to justice, . . . Reduire, 

Traire, to milk, Traire, 

Transcrire, to transcribe, Ecrire, 

Transmettre, to transmit, ..... Mettre, 

Tressaillir, to start up, ...... Assaillir, 

V. 

Vaincre, to vanquish, to conquer, .... Vaincre, 

Valoir, to be worth, ....... Valoir, 

Valoir mieux, to be better, " 

Venir, e., to come, ... .... Tenir, 

Vetir, to clothe, to dress, V6tir, 

Se vetir, e., to clothe one's self, " 

Vivre, to live, Vivre, 

Voir, to see, Voir, 

Se voir, e., to visit one another, .... " 

Vouloir, to be willing, ...... Vouloir, 



Page. 
598 
606 
606 

584 
584 
584 
584 
596 
606 
606 
597 
598 
603 
592 
584 
607 



603 
603 
599 
5S4 
584 
584 
576 
604 
606 
598 
600 
577 



607 
592 
592 
584 
585 
585 
607 
593 
593 
593 






FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1. Grammar is the art of speaking and writing a language cor- 
rectly. To speak a language is to convey our thoughts in that 
language by means of articulate sounds. To write a language is to 
convey our thoughts in that language by means of signs or characters 
called letters. A French Grammar, written for the use of foreigners, 
ought not only to contain the rules of the French language, but to 
compare them with those of the foreign language in which it is to be 
studied, and to show clearly in what they differ or agree. In French, 
as well as in other languages, the rules are the result of philosophical 
reasoning and of usage. 

Language, however, even as spoken by the natives of the same 
country, differs in construction, idiom, and pronunciation, owing to the 
fact, that some are well educated, some are not ; hence a great 
difference between the language, as generally spoken, and that which 
is classical and conforms to the rules ; and the student of a foreign 
language ought not only to aim at acquiring such a knowledge of it 
as shall enable him to express his ideas intelligibly, but to write and 
speak it correctly. The study of Grammar is the means by which 
this point is to be gained. 

Words spoken or written are composed of syllables ; syllables are 
composed of letters. 

These letters, separately or grouped together, represent the sounds 
and written words of a language ; and form a collection which is 
called the Alphabet. 

The French language has no alphabet of its own ; that which is 
used comes from the Latin. 

2. (See for the French Alphabet, and all that relates to Pronun- 
ciation, the French Reader, by Count De Laporte.) 

1 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



ACCENTUATION. 



3. The five vowels receive modifications in their sound by the use 
of certain signs placed over them. These signs are called accents. 

We have in French three accents ; the acute, which is marked 
thus ('), the grave ( N ), and the circumflex ( A ). 

The acute accent (') is only used with the letter e, and gives it the 
sound of the English letter a in bale, as in bonte, goodness. 

The grave accent Q is used with the letters a, e, u. When used 
with the first and the last, a, u, it shows only some particular use of 
these two letters, and does not alter their pronunciation ; as in the 
words la, there, and ou, where. Without the accent, these words 
signify the, feminine and or. 

It gives to the letter e a more open sound than the acute accent, as 
in the words progrls, succes, progress, success, in which £ sounds as 
ai in fair, pair, or a in mare, snare. 

The circumflex accent is used with the five vowels, and gives them 
a broader sound than they have naturally, without changing the 
nature of that sound. This accent has been introduced into the 
language to show, that, formerly, the words over which it is seen 
were written with an s after the vowel which now receives the accent, 
as meme for mesmes, fumes for fusmes , fimes for fsmes, cote for coste, 
pate for paste. 

OF PUNCTUATION, AND OTHER SIGNS USED IN THE 
FRENCH LANGUAGE. 

4. The marks of Punctuation are similar in French and in English, 
as well as the other signs used in writing ; they are called by the 
following names : 

Comma, , virgule. 

Semicolon, ; point et virgule. 

Colon, : deux points. 

Period, . un point. 

Note of interrogation, 1 point oV interrogation. 

Note of admiration, or point d? admiration, ou 

exclamation, ! d' 'exclamation. 

The parenthesis, ( ) parenthese. 

The dash, — le trait de separation. 

A quotation, " " guillemets. 

Cedilla, (p), cedille, gives to the c the sound of 55. 

Diaeresis, ( •• ) trema, placed above the vowels e, i, u, to indicate 
that these vowels do not form a dipthong with the next vowel, bnt 
should be pronounced by themselves ; as, poeme, hair, Saul. 



ELISION. O 

The hyphen, (-) trait d'union; this sign is used to connect 
together, first, compound words, as, arc-en-ciel ; second, the personal 
pronouns nominative and the verb, when placed after the verb in 
interrogative sentences, as, aime-la, aimons-nous ; third, the objective 
pronouns and the verb in the imperative mood, as, ecoute-moi, parle- 
lui; fourth, it is also used, when, at the end of a line, a word being 
too long must be divided, and the latter part written in the next line. 

The apostrophe, (') V apostrophe, which is used to show the elision 
of a vowel when followed by another vowel, or by an h mute ; as, 
Vhomme, I'etude, le homme, la etude. This sign is employed merely 
for the sake of euphony. 



ELISION. 



5. The apostrophe ('), as we have just stated, is placed between 
two words to show the suppression of the vowel ending the first word 
before another vowel or an h mute. 

This suppression is called elision, and causes the two words to be 
pronounced together, as if forming but one. The only vowels which 
suffer elision are, a, c, i. 

This last vowel, i, is suppressed only in one word, si, if, when this 
word comes before the personal pronouns nominative of the third 
persons singular and plural, il, Us; thus, instead of writing, 

Si il, for if he, or si Us, for if they, the letter i is suppressed in the 
word si, and we write, s'il, s'ils. 

The letters a, e, are suppressed in the following words, when the 
next word begins with a vowel or an h mute. 



la, 

me, 
te, 



de, 



que, 

parceque, 

quoique, 

puisque, 

jnsque, 

vu, que, 

desque, 

quelque, 

tntre. 



the, him, it, 
" her, " 
I, 

me, 
thee, 



V. 
m'. 



himself, nerself, itself, themselves, s 9 . 

this or that, it, c\ ' 

of, from, <T. 

not, n\ 

that, which, whom, gw'. 

because, parcequ', 

although, quoiqu'. 

since, puisqu*. 

until, jusqu?. 

since, vu qu* 

as soon as, desqu 9 . 

some, &fc, quelqu*. 

between, entr*. 



4 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

In this last word, entre, the e final may be suppressed or not before 
another word beginning with a vowel or an h mute ; thus, we may 
write, entr'eux or entre eux, entr'autres or entre autres, &c. 

The words le, la, ce, used as objective or nominative pronouns, do 
not suffer the elision, when placed after the verb in interrogative 
sentences or in the imperative mood, and before words beginning with 
a vowel or an h mute ; thus, we say, apportez le, or la, id, bring it 
here ; est-ce it lui d, parler ? is it for him to speak ? 



OF GENDERS. 



6. Gender, in all languages, marks the difference between the 
sexes. 

All that are of the male sex are said to belong to the masculine 
gender. 

All that are of the female sex are said to be of the feminine gender. 

This part of the language would present no difficulty to the student, 
if all the words to which the genders are applied were either male or 
female ; but inanimate objects have no sex, and yet have a gender. 
In English, this gender is called neuter ; but in French there is no 
neuter gender, and the whole family of nouns are either masculine or 
feminine. How, then, can a foreigner distinguish which of the two he 
must apply to things ? There are no satisfactory rules to guide him 
in this difficult study ; time, practice, and a good dictionary are the 
only means which may assist him efficiently. 

Some grammarians pretend to have established rules which they 
call complete ; but the result of their efforts has only proved the 
inutility of the attempt. Where, in order to establish a rule, 
we have to admit nearly as many exceptions as there are cases 
which conform to the rule, there is no rule, and it is far better 
to tell the student, at once, that he must arm himself with patience 
and perseverance, than to delude him in an undertaking, which, 
after all his efforts and loss of time, will leave him-, perhaps, 
further from the point he wished to gain than he was before 
beginning the study of this difficult matter. 

But, although we proscribe, as fruitless, the modes of gaining 
a correct knowledge of the genders of the French language, through 
the medium of mere barren rules, we admit that there are indications 



GENDERS. O 

which may be of great service to foreigners, and we will give them 
here, but only as matters for reference, and not to be committed to 
memory. We repeat, that a good dictionary is the only sure guide 
on this subject. 

7. The terminations of words are distinguished, by grammarians, 
as either masculine or feminine. 

Words ending with an e mute are said to be of the feminine 
termination. 

Words not ending with an e mute are said to be of the masculine 
termination. 

These denominatives, however, are far from being of a general 
application ; but, before entering upon the details of the exceptions, 
we will speak of the nouns which, denoting species, have a fixed 
gender, independently of their termination. 

8. First ; God, angels, cherubim, and seraphim are of the masculine 
gender. 

9. Second ; all names of living beings, and all proper names of 
men and women, are of the gender of the sex which they represent. 

When, however, the same noun is employed to designate both the 
male and the female in animals, this noun takes the gender of its 
termination, with the following exceptions. 

First ; masculine nouns with feminine terminations. 



Aigle, 

Bievre, 

Buffle, 

Capricorne, 

Crabe, 


eagle 

beaver 

buffalo 

Capricorn 

crab 


Congre, 


conger 


3ond ; feminine nouns \ 


Fourmi, 
perdrix, 


ant 

partridge 



cygne, 


swan. 


dromadaire, 


dromedary 


lievre, 


hare. 


merle, 


blackbird. 


rouge-gorge, 


red-breast. 


zebre, 


zebra. 



sour is, mouse. 

cliauve-souris, bat. 

10. Third ; all diminutive names of animals, whenever the animals 
of both sexes are called by the same denomination, are of the masculine 
gender, whatever may be the original noun from which they are 
derived ; as, 

Un lionceau, a young lion. 

Un souriceau, a young mouse. 

Un Carpillon, a young carp. 

Un perdreau, a young partridge. 

Un vipereau, a young viper. 

Vn becasseau, » young woodcock, &c. 

1* 



6 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The word becassine, snipe, being feminine, seems to be an exception 
to this rule, but it is not so ; because, although this noun is derived 
from becasse, it designates another species of birds, and not a young 
one of the same family. 

Where the diminutive names of animals are not the same for both 
sexes, they follow the general rule, and are of the same gender as the 
object which they represent ; as, 

Un poulain, une pouliche, a colt. 

Un cochet, une poulette, a young chicken, &c. 

11. Fourth ; diminutive names of inanimate objects take, generally, 
the same gender as the nouns from which they originate ; as, 

Batelet, masc. from bateau, masc. a small boat. 

Maisonette, fern. " maison,/em. a little house. 

Globule, masc. " globe, masc. a small globe, &c. 

We say generally, because there are exceptions to the above 
rule ; as, 

Corbillon, masc. from Corbeille, fern. a small basket. 

Soliveau, " " solive, " a small beam. 

Cruchon, " " cruche, " a small pitcher. 

Savonette,/em. " savon, masc. a wash-ball, &c. 

12. Fifth ; all the names of the days, months, and seasons of the 
year are of the masculine gender ; but, when the word mi, half, is 
prefixed to the name of a month, the compound word thus formed 
becomes feminine ; as, 

La mi-mai, the half of the month of May. 

La mi-aout, " " August. 

So, also, La mi-careme, half of Lent. 
The saint-days are also feminine ; as, 

La Saint-Jean, St. John's day. 

La toussaint, fyc. All Saints day, &c. 

because these compound words are elliptical, and mean, 

La moitie de Mai, La moitie d'Aout. 

ha. fete de St. Jean, La fete de tous les saints, &c. 

13. Sixth ; (1.) Names of trees are masculine, except yeuse, holm. 

(2.) Names of shrubs are masculine, except 

Aubepine, hawthorn. 

Bourdaine, black alder. 

Epine, thorn. 

Ronce, brier. 

Vigne, vine. 



GENDERS. 7 

(3.) Names of metals are all masculine, as well as those of minerals, 
with very few exceptions. 

(4.) Names of colors are all masculine, without reference to their 
termination. 

14. Seventh ; (1.) Names of mountains, except those which have 
no singular. 

(2.) The names of winds, except, 

La bise, north east wind. 

La brise, light wind. 

La tramontane, tramontane. 

Les moussons, monsoon. 

(3.) The nouns designating the cardinal points, and names of 
countries, take the gender of their termination, except, 

Le Bengale, Bengal. 

Le Mexique, Mexico. 

Le Peloponese, Peloponnesus. 

Le Caire, Cairo. 

Le Maine, 

Le Perche, 

Le Rouergue, 

Le Bigorre, 

La Franche Comte, 

and perhaps a few others. 

(4.) Names of towns, boroughs, and villages are masculine, except 
those which take the article before them ; in which case the names 
are elliptical ; as, 

La Rochelle, for La Ville de Rochelle, 

La Nouvelle Orleans. " La Nouvelle Ville d'Orleans, &c. 

But, when the name of a city is preceded by the word ville, city, 
which is feminine, then the compound expression is of the feminine 
gender ; as, 

La ville de Paris, 

La ville de Rouen, &c. 

15. Eighth ; ordinal, distributive, and proportional numbers ; 
adjectives, infinitives, prepositions, adverbs, used as nouns, are all 
masculine ; as, 

Le tiers, a third le quart, the fourth, &c. 

Un cinquieme, a fifth un dixieme, a tenth. 

Le quintuple, the quintuple, &c. 

Le necessaire, what is necessary L'utile, what is useful. 

Le boire, drinking Le manger, eating, &c. 

Le mieux, what is best Le contre, what is against, &c. 



8 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

We must except the half, la moitie\ and the following elliptical 
expressions ; 

Une courbe,/or une ligne courbe, a curve, 

Une perpendiculaire,/or une ligne, &c. a perpendicular , 

Une parallele, for une ligne parallele, a parallel, &c., 

Une antique, for une medaille, une statue antique, an old medal or statue, 

as well as all similar expressions. 

16. Ninth; all nouns expressing virtues are feminine, except 
courage and merite, courage and merit. 

All nouns expressing vices are feminine. 

All nouns expressing crimes are masculine. 



GENDERS OF NOUNS, MOSTLY DEPENDING ON THEIR 
TERMINATION. 

17. The names of fruits, grain, plants and flowers, generally take 
the gender of their termination ; there are, however, very many 
exceptions, which are too numerous to be mentioned here. The 
student, when in doubt, must consult his dictionary. 

18. We will now give a table of all the masculine terminations, 
with the exceptions attached to each. 

Number 
of words 

of the Masculine, 

masculine 
gender. 

none 

aparte, arrete, bened 
11 cite, comte, cote, ete, te 

pate, traite, the, te, lethe. 
.~ alibi, biribi, lundi, grand 

merci, &c. 
15 convoi, effroi, &c. 

„ n ergo, vertigo, indigo, 

dU &c. 

fichu, ecru, ecu, tissu, 

&c. 



10 



200 aloyau, anneau, &c. 



3 

100 



g bref, chalef, chef, fief, f 

relief, grief. 

daim, essaira, abat 
faim. 

an, ban, cran, ecran, 
&c. 



Terminations. 


Feminine. 


Number 
of words 
of the 
feminine 
gender. 


tie 


amitie, inimitie, moitie, 
pitie. 

absurdite, beaute, cha- 


4 


, te 


rite, cite, dignite, fidelite, 
&c. 


500 


i ; 

oi 


fourmi, merci, gaqui, 
apres-midi. 
foi, loi, paroi. 


4 
3 


' 


albugo, virago. 


2 


' u 


bru, gru, tribu, vertu. 


4 


au 


eau, peau, surpeau, 
sans-peau. 


4 


' ef 


clef, nef, soif. 


3 


aim 


faim, malfaim. 


2 


' an 


maman. 


1 



GENDERS 



200 



30 



11 



15 



20 
30 

750 

70 
15 

12 

700 



250 



15 



bain, baise-main, avant- 
main, garde-main, tourne- 
main, essuie-main, grain, 
frein, &c. 



scion, 
ixion. 



bastion, bestion, 



gabion, &c. 
bandion, &c. 
lion, &c. 
tremion, &c. 
espion, &c. 
septentrion, &c. 
gavion, &c. 

alcyon, clayon, crayon, 
sayon, trayon, lamprayon, 
amphictyon. 

brise-raison. 

peson, beson. 

grison, horison, tison, oison, 
poison, contrepoison. 

buson. 

basson, caisson, cave- 
sson, taisson, poisson, 
buisson, frisson, herisson, 
maudisson, nourisson, pal-^ 
isson, polisson, unisson, | 
saucisson. [ 

arcanson, echanson, ten- 
son, pinson. 

charancon, cavecon, 

pincon, su^on, &c. 

bridon, gueridon, &c. 

baron, tendron, &c. 

abattis, appentis, iris, 
tourne-vis, &c. 

bois, mois, carquois, 
harnois, &c. 

adent, chiendent, cure- 
dent, Occident, trident, 
&c. 

acharnement, jugement, 
&c. 

ballet, billet, basquet, 
fee. 

minuit, conduit, reduit, 
&c. 

billot, brulot, complot, 
&c. 
bout, gout, ragout, &c. 

faix, choix, crucifix, 
prix, &c. 
taux, &c. 

houx, courroux, epoux, 
fee. 



cion 
sion 
tion 
gion 
nion 
v xion 
f bion 
dion 
lion 
raion 
pion 
rion - 
vion 

yon 

aison 
eson 



nson 

con 
don 
Ion, i 



fin, main, nonnain. 

succion, &c. 
cession, &c. 
gestion, friction, &c. 
f* region, &c. 
opinion, &c. 
reflexion, fluxion, &c. 



rebellion, dent-de-lion. 

alluvion. 

none. 

cargaison, &c. 

garnison, guerison, prison, 
trahison, cloison, foison, 
moison, pamoison, toison. 
camuson. 

paissson, boisson, moi- 
sson, cuisson, salisson, 
mousson. 



chanson, 

facon, contrefacon, 

malfacon, random 

dondou. 

laidron, souillon, tatil- 
lon. 

brebis, souris, chauve- 
souris, vis, iris. 

fois. 



dent 


dent, surdent. 


gent 


gent. 


ment 


jument 


et 


foret. 


uit 


nuit. 


ot 


dot. 


out 
ix 
aux 


glout. 

paix, croix, noix, poix, 
voix, perdrix. 
>cliaux, faux. 



1100 



11 



10 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



20 



40 



art, depart, champart, C 
rempart, &c. 1 art 

effort, port, fort, tort, &c. ( ort 

fer, ver, liver, &c. C er 

air, eclair, &c. 2 air 

tour, contour, four, &c. C our 



900 



bonheur, malheur, la- 
beur, honneur, deshon- 
neur, coeur, anticoeur, 
crevecoeur, choeur, chou- 
fleur, pleur, equateur, 
secteur, &c. 



f hart, part. 

) mort, malemort. 

i cuiller, mer. 

> chair. 

) cour, tour. 

aigreur, ampleur, ar- 
deur, blancheur, candeur, 
chaleur, chandeleur, cou- 
leur, clameur, douceur, 
douleur, epaisseur, erreur, 
faveur, defaveur, ferveur, 
fleur, passe-fleur, sans- 
fleur, fraicheur, frayeur, 
froideur, fureur, grand- 
eur, grosseur, hauteur, 
horreur, humeur, laideur, 
langueur, largeur, len- 
teur, liqueur, longueur, 
lourdeur, maigreur, moi- 
teur, noirceur, odeur, 
paleur, pesanteur, peur, 
primeur, profondeur, puan- 
teur, pudeur, impudeur, 
rigueur, raideur, rondeur, 
rougeur, rousseur, rumeur, 
saveur, senteur, soeur, 
souleur, splendeur, sueur, 
teneur, terreur, tiedeur, 
torpeur, touffeur, tumeur, 
valeur, non-valeur, vapeur, 
verdeur, vigueur, and 
mceurs. There are three 
old words, besides these ; 
basseur, tremeur, rancoeur, 
which are now obsolete, 
and complete the number, 
76. 



76 



As this list of exceptions is pretty accurate, all nouns with the 
termination eur which are not found among the above exceptions, 
must be considered as being masculine. 



A TABLE OF NOUNS WHICH ARE MASCULINE IN ONE SIGNI- 
FICATION AND FEMININE IN ANOTHER. 



19. As if it were not already difficult enough for a foreigner to 
learn the gender of the nouns of our language, he must know 
that there are certain of them that are sometimes masculine, and 
sometimes feminine, according to their signification, as follows : 





GENDERS. 


11 


Masculine. 




Feminine. 


assistant, helper 


aide 


aid, help, support 


eagle, a great genius 


aigle 


a Roman standard 


an angel 


ange 


a kind of thornback 


an alder-tree 


aune 


an ell, a sort of measure 


barb, a Barbary horse 


barbe 


beard 


bard, a poet 


barde 


a slice of bacon, horse armor 


redbreast 


berce 


cow parsnip 


a sort of privateer 


capre 


caper, an acid pickle 


an ornament to painting, a scroll 


cartouche 


cartridge 


a caravan, a hog 


coche 


a notch, a sow 


cornet, a standard-bearer 


cornette 


a woman's head-dress, when in 
dishabille 


a couple, a male and a female 


couple 


a brace, two of a sort 


a Croatian soldier 


cravate 


a neckcloth 


crape 


crepe 


a pancake 


an echo, the return of a sound 


echo 


Echo, a nymph 


ensign, a standard-bearer 


enseigne 


a sign-post 


example, model, instance 


exemple 


a copy for writing 


a gimblet, a piercer 


foret 


a wood, a forest 


a large tun 


foudre 


lightning, a thunderbolt 


keeper, -warden 


garde 


watch, hilt, nurse 


hoar-frost 


givre 


a serpent, in heraldry 


the rolls, the register 


greffe 


a graft 


gules in heraldry 


gueule 


the mouth of some beasts 


guide, director 


guide 


reins, for governing a horse 


sunflower 


heliotrope 


heliotrope, jasper 


iris, rainbow, iris of the eye 


iris 


spring crystal, proper name 


lacker, a kind of varnish 


laque 


lacca, gum lac 


a book 


livre 


a pound 


a lot of otter's hair 


loutre 


an otter 


the handle of a tool 


manche 


a sleeve, English Channel 


a laborer 


manoeuvre 


the working of a ship 


memoir, a bill 


memoire 


memory 


thanks 


merci 


pity, mercy 
fashion 


mood, mode 


mode 


a pier or mound 


mole 


mole, moon-calf 


mould, cast, form 


moule 


muscle, shell-fish 


a ship-boy 


mousse 


moss, a plant 


the philosopher's stone 


ceuvre 


action, an author's work 


office, business, prayers 


office 


pantry, larder, buttery 


ombre, a game at cards 


ombre 


shade, shadow 


the page of a prince 


page 


page, in a book 


a merry-andrew 


paillasse 


a straw bed 


a hand's breadth 


palme 


the branch of a palm-tree, vic- 
tory 
a dumb show 


pantomime 


pantomime 


easter, easter-day 


paque 


the passover 


a comparison 


paralleie 


a parallel line 


pendulum 


pendule 


a clock 


le Perche, a province of France 


perche 


a Pole, perch, a fish 


summit, highest pitch 


periode 


period, epoch 


anybody, nobody (pronoun) 


personne 


a person (a noun) 


spade, at cards 


pique 


a pike 


gnatsnapper, a bird 


pivoine 


peony, a flower 


a plane-tree 


plane 


plane, an instrument 


a stove, a canopy 


poele 


a frying-pan 


post, a military station 


poste 


the post for letters 
the laying of eggs 


pun to, at cards 


ponte 



12 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



purple color, purples (a disease) pourpre 

a pretence pretexte 

quadrille, at cards quadrille 

the calling back a hawk reclame 

rest, relaxation relache 

a glass coach remise 

a sort of pear-tree sans-peau 

satyr, a sylvan god satyre 

serpentarius serpentaire 

nap, slumber somme 

a smile souris 

a porter Suisse 

holder, book-keeper teneur 

a tour, turn, trick tour 

triumph triomphe 

trumpeter trompette 

space vague 

a vase, a vessel vase 

a hat of Vigonia wool vigogne 

a veil voile 



purple fish, purple dye 

pretext 

party of horse in a tournament 

a catch- word (in printing) 

harbor 

a coach-house, a remittance 

a sort of pear 

a satire, a lampoon 

snake-root, dragon's wort 

sum, load, name of a river 

a mouse 

Switzerland 

tenor, purport, content 

tower, rook at chess 

a trump 

trumpet 

a wave, surge 

the slime in ponds, lakes, &c. 

a vigon, a llama 

a sail 



TERMINATIONS SHOWING THE SIMILARITY OF WORDS IN 
FRENCH AND ENGLISH. 

20. There are many words which are alike in both languages. 
These words are known by their terminations, as will be seen by the 
following list. 



Terminations. 

al as animal, cardinal, fatal, general, local, moral, &c 

ble " capable, fable, &c, Bible, eligible, &c, noble, double, soluble, &c. 

ace " face, grimace, grace, place, race, &c. 

ance " chance, complaisance, extravagance, ignorance, &c. 

ence " prudence, conference, continence, patience, &c. 

ice " artifice, auspice, edifice, orifice, &c. 

acle " miracle, obstacle, receptacle, spectacle, &c. 

ade " ambuscade, brigade, cavalca-de, parade, &c. 

age " age, adage, cage, image, page, &c. 

ege " college, privilege, siege, sortilege, &c. 

ge " vestige, sage, barge, charge, forge, &c. 

ule " globule, ridicule, formule, mule, pustule, &c. 

ile " bile, debile, agile, docile, facile, fragile, &c. 

ine " carabine, doctrine, heroine, machine, &c. 

ion " action, fraction, legion, opinion, passion, &c. 

ant " arrogant, constant, elegant, elephant, piquant, &c. 

ent " absent, accident, compliment, content, element, &c. 

21. Many other English words require only a change of termi- 
nation ; as, 



gy 

ary 



gie as energy 
aire " military 



energie 
militaire 



ory 
cy 

ty 

ous or 
eous 
our, or 
ine 
ive 



I 





ARTICLE. 




oire 


as glory 


gloire 


ce 


" clemency 


cleinence 


te 


" beauty 


beaute 


eux 


" courageous 


courageux 


a 


" dangerous 


dangereux 


eur 


" favor, error 


faveur, erreur 


in 


" clandestine 


clandestin 


if 


" attentive 


attentif 


rie 


" fury 


furie 


die 


" perfidy 


perfidie 



13 



OF THE ARTICLE. 

22. The definition of this word, Article, has been the subject of * 
long and spirited discussions among grammarians, who are, even to 
this day, far from agreeing with each other on the nature of its 
functions in language. 

We wish the public to understand, that our object in this grammar 
is, and will always be, to reach the intelligence of the greatest 
number, without pretensions to science or novelty. We are satisfied 
that new denominations, although more rational than those already in 
use, are of no benefit in practice, and serve only to confuse the minds 
of pupils ; therefore : 

Without entering into the details of the numerous systems 
contained in the most celebrated works on the French language, 
concerning the nature of this part of speech, we shall adopt the 
definition of Levizac, as conveying the clearest idea, and being in 
conformity with the notions generally adopted by scholars and 
teachers. 

" The article, being intended to express the direction of the mind 
towards the particular object which it has in view, is a word placed 
before common nouns, to designate that they are about to be taken in 
a definite sense." 

Such being the definition of the article, it is evident that there 
cannot exist what is generally called an indefinite article ; therefore 
the words a, an, will be hereafter classed among the adjectives. 

In English there is but one word to express the article ; it is 
the. It is used before nouns of either gender and number ; it has 
neither elision nor contraction. 

In French, on the contrary, the article agrees in number and 
gender with the noun which it precedes ; it admits of elision and 
contraction, as follows : 
2 



14 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Without elision. 

23. Before a noun sing, raasc. beginning with a consonant, or an h 

aspirated, the is expressed by le 

" sing. fern. " '* la 

" plur. masc. or fem. " les 

With elision. 
Before a noun sing. masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or an h mute, 

the is expressed by V 







Examples. 








Without elision. 


With elision in the singular. 


Sing 


. Masc. 


the day le jour 


Sing. Masc. 


the bird 


l'oiseau 




Fem. 


the night la nuit 


" Fem. 


the soul 


Fame 


« 


Masc. 


the owl le hibou 


" Masc. 


the man 


l'homme 


cc 


Fem. 


the hatred la haine 


« Fem. 


the inn 


l'hotellerie 


-Plur. 


Masc. 


the days les jours 


Plur. Masc. 


the birds 


les oiseaux 


" 


Fem. 


the nights les nuits 


" Fem. 


the soul 


les ames 


" 


Masc. 


the owls les hiboux 


" Masc. 


the men 


les hommes 


cc 


Fem. 


the hatred les haines 
(plur.) 


« Fem. 


the inns 


les hotelleri 






CONTRACTION. 







24. The contraction of the article takes place in the singular 
masculine, and in the plural masculine and feminine, before all 
nouns, when it is preceded by either of the prepositions of and 
to, de, a ; so that, 

25. of the, (1.) before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant or an 

h aspirated, is expressed by du (for de le.) 
" (2.) before a noun. sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or an 

h aspirated, is expressed by de la. 
" (3.) before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or an h 

mute, is expressed by de V. 
(4.) befcnre a noun plur. is expressed by des (for de les.) 
(1.) before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant, or h 

aspirated, is expressed by au (for a le.) 
(2.) before a noun sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or an h 

aspirated, is expressed by a la. 
(3.) before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with. a vowel, or an k 

mute, is expressed by a I'. 
(4.) before a noun plural is expressed by aux (for d les.) 

Examples. 



to the, 



'. (1.) 


of the day sing 


. masc. 


beg. wi 


th cons. 


(de le) du jour 




(C 


owl " 


et 


" 


h asp. 


(de le) du hibou 


(2.) 


(( 


night " 


fem. 


cc 


cons. 


de la nuit 




CC 


hatred " 


a 


" 


h asp. 


de la haine 


(3.) 


CC 


bird « 


masc. 


cc 


a vowel 


(de le) de l'oiseau 




cc 


soul " 


.fem. 


cc 


a vowel 


(de la) de 1'a.me 




cc 


man " 


masc. 


cc 


h mute 


(de le) de l'homme 




" 


inn " 


fem. 


cc 


h mute 


(de la) de l'hotellerie 











ARTICLE. 






u 


(4.) of the days 


plur 


masc. 


beg. with cons. 


(de les) des jours 




ee 


nights 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


cons. 


cc 


des nuits 




« 


owls 


« 


masc. 


cc 


h asp. 


cc 


des hiboux 




" 


hatred 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


h asp. 


cc 


des haines 




cc 


birds 


" 


masc. 


" 


a vowel 


cc 


des oiseaux 




" 


souls 


cc 


fem. 


" 


a vowel 


cc 


des ames 




cc 


men 


cc 


masc. 


cc 


h mute 


« 


des hommes 




cc 


inns 


cc 


fem. 


" 


h mute 


" 


des hotelleries 


CIO 


to the day 


sing 


. masc. 


beg. with cons. 


(ale) 


au jour 




cc 


owl 


cc 


masc. 


cc 


h asp. 


(ale) 


au hibou 


(2.) 


cc 


night 


" 


fem. 


cc 


cons. 


(a la) 


a la nuit 




cc 


hatred 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


h asp. 


(a la) 


a la haine 


(3.) 


cc 


bird 


cc 


masc. 


" 


a vowel 


(ale) 


a l'oiseau 




cc 


soul 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


a vowel 


(a la) 


a l'ame 




cc 


man 


" 


masc. 


cc 


h mute 


(ale) 


a I'homme 




cc 


inn 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


h mute 


(a la) 


a l'hotellerie 


(4.) 


cc 


days 


plur 


masc. 


« 


cons. 


(a les) 


aux jours 




cc 


nights 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


cons. 


cc 


aux nuits 




" 


owls 


" 


masc. 


cc 


h asp. 


cc 


aux hiboux 




cc 


hatred 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


h asp. 


cc 


aux haines 




cc 


birds 


cc 


masc. 


cc 


a vowel 


cc 


aux oiseaux 




cc 


souls 


cc 


fem. 


" 


a vowel 


cc 


aux ames 




68 


men 


" 


masc. 


cc 


h mute 


« 


aux hommes 




cc 


inns 


cc 


fem. 


cc 


h mute 


cc 


aux hotelleries 



Now that we have explained the mechanism of the article, and 
have laid it down, as a principle, that the article is used before a noun 
taken definitely, agreeing with that noun in number and gender, let 
us explain what we understand by a noun taken definitely. 

29. A common noun is definite when it signifies a whole species 
of persons or things, a distinct part of a whole species, or a single 
individual of a whole species ; that is to say, when it is used in 
reference to the extent of its signification. 

A common noun designates a whole species of persons or things, 
when it represents all the individuals named by that noun. 



Examples. 



Men are not wicked. 
Children are troublesome. 
Man ought to rule his passions. 



Les hommes ne sont pas mechants. 
Les enfants sont turbulents. 
L'homme devrait regler ses passions. 



In the first and last sentences, les hommes, Vhomme, designate the 
whole species of beings called men. In the second, children signifies 
the whole species of beings called children. These nouns are therefore 
used in reference to the whole extent of their signification. 

The common noun designates a distinct part of a whole species, 
when, by some qualification, it separates a certain class from the 
whole : as, 



16 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Examples. 



Wicked men are to be feared. Les hommes mediants sont a craindre. 

Studious children are loved by their Les enfants studieux sont aimes de leurs 

masters. maitres. 

A weak man is governed by his IShomme faible est gouverne par ses 

passions. passions. 

In the first and last sentences we do not speak of all men, but of 
distinct classes of men ; those who are wicked, those who are weak ; 
and the extent of the signification of the nouns man and children 
embraces all wicked and weak men, and all studious children. 

The common noun designates a single individual of a whole species, 

when it presents to the mind the idea of a single object of that 

species ; as, 

Examples. 

The king is loved by his subjects. Le roi est aime de ses sujets. 

The man of whom you speak. L'homme dont vous parlez. 

In these sentences we speak only of one king, of one man, the one 
of whom yon speak ; and the extent of the signification of the nouns 
king and man is limited to one particular individual of each kind. 

The functions of the article, as a part of speech, being to designate 
the noun which it precedes in a definite manner, it is evident that, 
where a sentence contains several nouns, used as nominatives or 
objectives, it must be repeated before each of them ; thus we say, 

Examples. 

The horses, cattle, sheep, and mules, Les chevaux, les bestiaux, les brebis, et 

are in the pasture. les mules sont dans la prairie. 

I have bought the knives, the forks, J'ai achete les couteaux, les fourchettes, 

the glasses, and the decanter, of les verres, et la carafe dont nous avions 

which we were in need. besoin. 

This rule is not without exceptions, as will be seen when 
speaking of the repetition of the article. 

The article, being definite, cannot be placed before any other word 
but the common noun, or before words used as such, elliptically or 
idiomatically; which is sometimes the case with adjectives, verbs, 
adverbs, and prepositions ; as, 

Examples. 

(1.) The miser is poor among his L'avare est pauvre au milieu de ses 

riches. richesses. 

(2.) Eating is more necessary than Le manger est plus necessaire que le 

drinking. boire. 

(3) That man would know the how Cet homme voudrait savoir le povrqnoi 

and why of every thing et le comment de tout. 



AKT1CLE. 17 

(4.) There are people who defend II y a des personnes que eoutiennent le 
the pro and con, without any motive pour et le contre, sans autre motif que 
but love of contradiction. celui de contredire. 

It is evident that in these examples, Vavare is used for the man who 
is a miser, le manger and le boire for food and drinks, pourquoi and 
comment for the motive, le pour et le contre for one side of the question 
and the other; those words, having changed their nature through an 
operation of the mind, which has made them common nouns, take 
the article in accordance with the general rule. 

30. A common noun is indefinite, whenever, instead of being used 
in reference to the extent of its meaning, it is only employed for the 
sake of its material signification, representing an object as bearing a 
name which distinguishes it from other objects of a different kind, but 
not among those which belong to the same species ; thus, when I say, 
the road is lined with trees, the noun tree is indefinite, because if it 
enables me to ascertain, through its material signification, what the 
road is lined with, it does not show me what particular trees among 
the large family of trees have been used to line the road ; this 
sentence only signifies that the road is not lined with houses, fences, 
hedges, &c, but with a certain number of things called trees — but 
what trees ? 

If, instead of trees, I say, the road is lined with laurels, the noun 
laurel is as indefinite as the noun tree, because it still only represents 
to the mind the name of the things with which the road is lined, 
without reference to any particular laurels having been used for that 
purpose ; the noun laurel is therefore used for its material meaning, 
without any reference to the extent of it. 

If, instead of the noun laurel alone, I use the following expression, 
the road is lined with red laurels, the noun laurel thus qualified is quite 
as indefinite as the nouns laurel and tree in the preceding examples ; 
because if it shows that the road is lined not only with trees, but with 
laurels, and expresses that these laurels are red, it does not designate, 
among the family of red laurels, which is the distinct class which has 
been used to line the road ; it is still the mere name of a kind. 

If I say now, the road is lined with red laurels that I gave you, it 
would seem at first that the expression has assumed a definite 
character, but by analysing the sentence we soon discover that it 
is still as indefinite as the preceding one ; for if it shows that the road 
is lined with trees, that these trees are called laurels, that these 
laurels are red, and that these red laurels have been given by me, it 
does not state either that all the laurels which I gave have been used, 
2* 



18 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

nor what distinct part of them has been employed ; thus the 
expression, red laurels that I gave you, is still but the name of the 
things the road is lined with and no more, and is therefore indefinite ; 
the preceding sentences should then be expressed without the article , 
as follows : La route est bordee d'arbres : La route est bordee de 
lauriers : La ' route est bordee de lauriers roses : La route est 
bordee de lauriers roses que je vous ai donnes. 

A common noun is always indefinite w T hen it is used to qualify a 
preceding noun, as : I have a watch of gold, J'ai une montre d'or. 
In this sentence, the noun gold qualifies watch, says what it is made 
of ; it shows that my watch is neither made of silver, brass, or any 
other metal but of that called gold, without attaching to this 7 noun 
any definite idea of individuality, distinction of class or that of a 
whole ; it is therefore indefinite, and does not require the use of the 
article. 



OF THE PARTITIVE WORDS SOME AND ANY EXPRESSED OR 
UNDERSTOOD. 

31. Common nouns, instead of being used either in reference to the 
whole extent of their signification, or limited to designate a distinct 
class of individuals or things, or to point out a single individual or 
thing of a whole class, may be employed only to express an indefinite 
part of a whole ; they are then said to be used partitively. The 
words used in English to express this particular view of the mind are, 
some and any, which are thus called partitive words. The partitive 
word in French is the prepostion of, de, followed or not by the article 
the, according to the following rules : 

32. (1.) If the sentence is affirmative, and the noun to be used 
in a partitive sense is not preceded by an adjective, some or any is 
expressed as of the should be, before the same noun, as follows ; 

Give me some bread. Donnez moi du (de Ie) pain. 

Give me some beer. Donnez moi de la bierre. 

Have you any water 1 Avez-vous de Z'eau 1 

Have you any apples 1 Avez-vous des (de les) pommes 1 

The reason for this rule is to be found in the definition of the 
article itself; for when I say, give me some bread, I mean, give me a 
part of the bread which you have or which is there, the noun bread is 
then limited in my mind, and therefore definite, and requires the 
article the to be used with the partitive preposition of Usage having 



ARTICLE. 19 

suppressed the words a part and which you have, there remains the 
idiomatical expression, Give me of the bread. 

33. (2.) If, the sentence being affirmative, the noun to be used in 
a partitive sense were preceded by an adjective, some or any should 
be expressed by the partitive preposition of, de, alone, without the 
article, as follows : 

Give me some good bread. Donnez moi de bon pain. 

Have you any good apples 1 Avez-vous de bonnes pommes'? 

But should the adjective follow the noun, instead of preceding it, 
the preceding rule does not stand good, and some or any are expressed 
by of the, as follows : 

Give me some white bread. Donnez moi du (de le) pain blanc. 

Have you any red apples \ Avez-vous des (de les) pommes rouges 1 

Why this difference ? Is it because the expression good bread, bon 
pain, is indefinite, and white bread, pain blanc, definite, that the 
article the is used in the latter case and suppressed in the former 1 
Not at all. The reason for this difference between these two 
expressions arises from the fact that words being used in a sentence 
only to obey the impulse of the mind, the order in which they are 
placed, or their omission is the consequence of that want. Thus, 
when I wish to say, give me some good bread, after having pronounced 
the first two words, give me, the idea which preoccupies my mind 
next, is that of goodness, represented by the adjective good, which, 
expressing a mere qualification, is by its nature indefinite, and I do 
not feel prompted to use the article the, which always announces a 
definite idea ; I say then, give me of good bread, thus making use of 
the partitive preposition of, which shows that I only want a part of 
the bread, and omitting the article the ; but when, on the contrary, the 
noun precedes the adjective, as in, Give me some white bread, {bread 
white, in French,) the first idea which strikes my mind after having 
pronounced the words give me, is that represented by the word 
bread, which, being a noun, is most generally definite, and therefore 
I feel prompted to use the sign which precedes all definite nouns, that 
is to say, the article the ; and I say, give me of the bread white. Such 
is, no doubt, the original cause of the introduction of this apparent 
discrepancy, which causes a Frenchman to say, Donnez moi de bon 
pain and donnez moi du pain blanc, and from this habit — adopted 
from the time of the origin of the language — has originated the rule 
mentioned above, which grammarians have recorded in their w T orks, 
and which has become a law in our language. 



20 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Remarks. It sometimes happens that we wish to fix the attention 
on the noun, in order that it should become the predominant idea; 
then, in such cases, and against the preceding rule, the article the is 
used with the preposition of, dc, before the adjective which precedes the 
noun used in a partitive sense, as, This is real poetry : Void de la 
vraie poesie. This is sound philosophy : Voila de la bonne philosophic. 

We say, J'ai du meilleur pain, meaning, I have some of the best 
bread. J'ai de meilleur pain que vous, meaning, My bread is better 
than yours. Tirez de meilleur vin, meaning, Draw some better wine, 
and, Tirez du meilleur vin, meaning, Draw some of the best wine. 
The first and the last of these sentences express an idea in the 
superlative degree ; the two others are mere comparative and do not 
require the article. 

34. (3.) If the sentence is negative, whatever may be the situation 
of the noun to be used in a partitive sense, whether preceded or fol- 
lowed by an adjective or employed without any, the partitive meaning 
is conveyed by the preposition of, de, alone, as follows : 

I have no (or not any) bread. Je n'ai pas de pain. 

Have you no (or have you not any) »■,-, , „ 

\ i J N avez-vous pas de pommes " 

I have no good bread. Je n'ai pas de bon pain. 

I have no white bread. Je n'ai pas depain blanc. 

In these sentences, the unqualified nouns pain and pommes, and the 
qualified noun bon pain, and pain blanc, are only used as the names 
of the substances so called, without any reference to the extent of 
their signification ; they are therefore indefinite, and employed without 
the article. 

Remark 1st. But if we wish to fix the attention upon the noun 
or to express strong opposition between two ideas, the article is used 
with the preposition, although the sentence is negative, as in, 

I will not write you useless letters, but Je ne vous ecrirai pas des lettres 
I will try to do useful things which inutiles — mais je tacherai de faire 
may perhaps please you. des choses utiles qui puissent vous 

amuser. 

I will not address you frivolous re- Je ne vous ferai point des reproches 
proaches. frivoles. 

Remark 2nd. When the sentence is negative and interrogative, 
the article is sometimes used and sometimes not ; as, 

Have you not some bread for your N 'avez-vous pas du pain pour dejeuner % 

breakfast 1 What do you complain De quoi vous plaignez vous 1 
at! 

Have you no bread 1 I will give you N'avez-vous pas de pain 1 Je vais vous 

some. en donner. 



ARTICLE. 21 

In the first case, although the sentence is negative, the meaning is 
affirmative : You have some bread, and I know it : in the other the 
sentence is dubitative : I do not know if you have any bread or not. 
We say according to the same principle : 

I have money, but it is not to spend it Je n'ai pas de l'argent pour le depenser 
foolishly. follement. 

35. (4.) But if the noun preceded by an adjective, in an affirmative 
sentence, or used negatively, as in the preceding examples, should be 
rendered definite by some additional idea joined to it, as in the 
following expressions : 

Have you any more of the good bread Avez-vous encore du bon pain que vous 

which you baked yesterday 1 avez cuit hier 1 

I have no more of the bread, or of the Je n' ai plus du pain or du bon pain que 

good bread which I baked yesterday. j 'ai cuit hier. 

The expressions pain and bon pain, employed affirmatively or 
negatively, representing no longer the vague and indefinite idea of 
the substance called bread or good bread; and their sense being 
particularized by the additional idea, which you or I have baked 
yesterday; they have become definite, and therefore require to be 
preceded by the article the. 

36. (5.) It happens very often in English, that the partitive words 
some and any are used at the end of a sentence, as in the following : 

If you have any bread, give me some. Si vous avez du pain, donnez-m'en. 
Have you any cheese 1 No, I have Avez-vous du fromage 1 Non, je n'en 
not any. ai pas. 

The English expressions, give me some, and I have not any, are 
elliptical, and the nouns pain and fromage are understood after them. 
The repetition of these nouns would be disagreeable to the ear ; but 
as the sentence ought to be completed in French, this repetition is 
avoided, and the sense completed by using the personal objective 
pronouns it or them, preceded by the partitive preposition of; some 
and any are then omitted, and of it and of them expressed by the 
contracted pronoun en, placed immediately before the verb in all its 
tenses, except in the imperative mood, used affirmatively, in which 
case it follows it ; thus, give me some is changed into give me of it, 
and I have not any into I of it have not, and rendered as above. 

The proper use of the pronoun en instead of some or any is one of 
the greatest difficulties that beginners have to meet with, and requires 
a great deal of practice and attention from both pupils and teachers to 
be attended to properly. 



22 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

37. Some few examples will be given now, to illustrate the 
difficulties attending the use of the partitive sense of nouns. If I say. 
Have you helped the lady to some wine? Yes, but she prefers water : 
meaning that she always prefers water to wine, there is no partitive 
idea attached to the noun water, and the sentence is rendered by, 
Avez-vous offert du vin a, Madame 1 Oui, mais elle pref&re Veau. 
But if the above sentence should signify that the lady, although she 
may be fond of wine, wishes then for some water, the sense of the 
expression becomes partitive, because the lady wants a part of the 
water which is there on the table, and the answer should be, Oui, 
mais elle pref&re de Veau. 

38. If I should say to a gentleman, Will you take tea with me? I 
invite that person to sit at the table and partake of the whole meal 
called tea ; he may accept the offer, and not even taste the tea which 
is on the table ; there is then no partitive idea attached to the noun 
tea, and the sentence is expressed by, Voulez prendre le the avec moi 1 
But if, while sitting at the table, I ask the gentleman, Will you take 
tea or coffee ? I offer him then a part of the tea or coffee which is on 
the table ; the sense becomes partitive, and requires to be expressed 
by, Prendrez-vous du the ou du cafe 1 

39. If, addressing one of my neighbors at the table, I should 
inquire of him, Shall I help you to some sugar? I stand ready 
to help him myself out of the sugar bowl, and to give him a part of 
the sugar which is contained in it ; the sense is then partitive, and I 
should say, Vous offrerai-je du sucre 1 But if my intention only was 
to pass the sugar-bowl to him, the meaning would no longer be 
partitive, for it would then be the whole, the sugar and the bowl, I 
intend to offer ; and the sentence should be expressed by, Vous 
passerai-je le sucre 1 

40. We deem what precedes to be sufficient to enable a foreigner 
to understand fully how to express the partitive meaning of a noun, 
whether it be definite or indefinite ; we should only mention now, that 
whenever this partitive meaning is to be imparted in French, it ought 
to be expressed, the partitive preposition of, with or without the 
article, never being understood, as it is too often the case in English ; 
as in the following : 

London and Paris are (some) fine Paris et Londres sont de belles villes. 
cities. 

London and Paris are (some) mag- Paris et Londres sont des villes mag- 
nificent cities. nifiques. 

Why do you lay (some) snares for me'? Pourquoi me tendez-vous des pieges 1 

Why do you take (some) snuff 1 Pourquoi prenez-vous du tabac 1 



ARTICLE. 23 

41. When a common noun is composed of a noun and an 
adjective, these two words form a sense which is indivisible ; they 
are the equivalent to a single word, and consequently ought to be 
preceded by the article, although employed in a partitive sense ; as, 

des petits-inaitres. des petits-pates. 

des petites-maitresses. des petits-pois. 

But when the noun does not form an indivisible sense with the 
adjective by which it is preceded, the article is not used with the 
preposition of, de; as, 

We become as young children without Nous devenons comme de petits enfants 
pride, malice, and disguise. sans orgueil, sans malice, et sans 

deguisement. 

Des petits enfants would be incorrect, because the adjective petits and 
the noun enfants do not form an indivisible sense as in petits-pates and 
petits-pois. 

Remarks. Some writers have used the article before nouns used 
in a partitive sense and preceded by an adjective, when they do not 
form an inseparable sense ; as in, 

The other day he was asking ques- L 'autre jour il interrogeait des petits 

tions of tittle children. enfants. 

They drive before them asses and lis chassent devant eux des anes et des 

small horses. petits chevaux. 

We wish to meet with honest men* Nous voulons trouver des honnetes gens, 

because their society is the only parceque leur societe est la seule qui 

one which pleases us. nous plaise. 

In these cases the adjective and the noun are considered as forming 
a compound expression, having the character of a noun. 

42. The partitive sense should not be mistaken for the general 
sense, for in this latter case the article must be used ; as, 

It is the opinion of ancient philosophers. C'est l'opinion des anciens philosophes 

This expression, des anciens philosophes, is not partitive, but signifies 
a whole. 



OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH PROPER NAMES. 

43. The article being only introduced into the language to show 
that the noun which it precedes is considered by the mind in a 
definite point of view, it is clear that it should be dispensed with, 



24 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

when the noun to be used is so definite in its nature as to leave no 
doubt as to the particular thing or individual which that noun is 
intended to represent ; such is the case with proper names in general. 
Thus, in the following sentence, God is great, no sign is necessary to 
show what idea is represented by God, because with us French there is 
but one God ; Napoleon was a great general — there has been with us 
but one Napoleon, therefore the article the is not required to show 
what Napoleon we speak of. But this rule is subject to many ex- 
ceptions, and we will examine them separately. 



NAMES OF COUNTRIES USED WITHOUT A PREPOSITION. 

44. Names of countries always take the article when used 
without being preceded by a preposition ; as, 

France is a beautiful country, La France est un beau pays, 

because, in such case, the mind referring to the whole extent of the 
country, the article is necessary to indicate this particular circumstance 
as it shows it in common nouns. 

45. Exception. Countries which have the same names as their 
capitals, take no article, because, by a singular disposition of their 
mind, the French never think, when speaking of a city, how small or 
large that city is ; it is for them but a black spot on the map, having 
such a name, and by analogy, when this name of city is applied to a 
country, it retains its peculiarity, and therefore requires no article ; 
thus we say : 

Naples is a delightful country. Naples est un pays delicieux. 

Naples is a very fine city. Naples est une tres belle ville. 



NAMES OF COUNTRIES PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 

46. Whenever a name of a country is preceded by a preposition, it 
must be considered whether that name is used in reference to the 
extent of its signification or not, the extent of the signification of a 
name of country being that of its territory ; in the first place it takes 
the article, in the other it does not : thus, if we wish to say, Which 
do you prefer, the wines of France or Portugal ? it is evident that the 



ARTICLE. 25 

mind does not refer to the extent of these two countries ; for no man 
has ever tasted the whole of the wines which grow in these two 
countries ; and besides, the greatest part of these wines not being fit to 
drink, they cannot be alluded to as a whole in such a question. 
France and Portugal are then only used as adjectives to designate the 
kind of wine spoken of, showing these wines as coming from the 
countries thus designated, and not from Germany, Italy, or any other 
country, without any reference to the extent of the territories of the 
former countries. The above sentence should then be expressed by, 
Que preferez-vous, les vins de France ou ceux de Portugal ? 

47. But in the following sentence : 

The wines of France pay a tax of ten millions of dollars to the government, 

the mind alludes to the whole extent of France ; the proper name 
France is no longer used adjectively ; it is not intended to distinguish 
the wines of France from those of Spain or any other country, as in 
the preceding sentence, and it assumes the character of definiteness 
which requires the use of the article the, and we say : 

Les vins de la France paient uue taxe de dix millions de dollars au gouvernement. 

48. If I wish to say that the Queen of England is expected at 
Paris ; although the Queen spoken of, is certainly the Queen of the 
whole country called England, the mind does not allude to the extent 
of that territory ; it only refers to the Queen as ruling over a country 
called England, and not France or Germany, without any allusion to 
the extent of that country ; it is then used adjectively, and requires no 
article. Thus we say, 

La Reine d'Angleterre est attendue a Paris. 

49. In the following sentence, 

I have travelled in England, France and Germany, 

the person who speaks does not refer to the extent of these countries ; 
he does not mean to say that he has been all over Germany, France 
or England ; he only wishes to express that he has been in some 
parts of each ; they are then used as mere proper names, without any 
reference to the extent of their territories ; and this view of the mind 
not requiring that the article should be used before them, in is then 
rendered by the preposition en, which always conveys the idea of an 
indefinite character. Here it must be well understood, that it is not 
3 



26 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

because in is expressed by en that the article is not used before the 
following noun, but it is the absence of the article which requires in 
to be thus rendered in French ; the preceding sentence is then thus 
expressed : 

J'ai voyage en Angleterre, en France et en Allemagne. 

The preposition en, in, as well as de, of, and ti, to, being always 
repeated before each noun. 

50. But if the person who speaks wished to express that he has 
been all over England, France and Germany, these names of countries 
being then understood in reference to the whole extent of their 
signification, that is to say, of their territories, they should be 
preceded by the article the and in, expressed by dans, as : 

J'ai voyage dans toute la France, V Allemagne et V Angleterre. 

51. To this general rule which requires that the article should not 
be used before names of countries, unless employed in reference to 
the extent of their territories, there is an exception, which is purely 
idiomatical, and based upon no principle ; it is a mere fact which 
habit has consecrated, and such as are found in every language and 
almost every branch of human knowledge. When speaking of 
coming from or going to far distant countries which the French 
seldom visit, the article the is used with the prepositions of, or from, 
de, and to, it, and dans, in, as follows : 

I will go to Peru, when you will return J'irai au (to the) Perou quand vous 
from China. reviendrez de la (from the) Chine. 

The two names of countries used in this sentence, are not certainly 
understood by the mind in reference to the extent of their signification, 
for a man cannot return at once from or go to a whole country ; but 
this discrepancy should be admitted, notwithstanding its being in 
opposition to the general principle, because usage has consecrated it. 
The following list contains the names of those countries to which 
this exception should be applied. 

52. When speaking of coming or returning from the following 
countries we say . 

I return from, or this comes from : Je reviens, or cela vient : 

the India, or the Indies de Z'Inde, or des Indes 

the Indostan de Z'lndostan 

the Malabar du Malabar 

the China de la Chine 

the Nigritia de la Nigritie 

the Guinea de la Guinee 



ARTICLE. 



27 



the Congo 

the Cochin China 

the Peru 

the Tonquin 

the Thibet 

the Japan 

the Abyssinia 

the Mogul 

the Monomotapa 

the Caffraria 

the Zanguebar 

the Acadia 

the Guiana 

the Barbadoes 

the Jamaica 

the Martinico 

the Guadaloupe 

the Havana 

the Black Sea 

the Philippine Islands 

the Molucca Islands 

the Antilles Islands 

the East 

the Spitzberg 

the Greenland 

the Mexico 

the Paraguay 

the Chili 

the Brazil 

the Canada 



du Congo 

de la Cochin Chine 

du Perou 

du Tonquin 

du Thibet 

du Japon 

de Z'Abyssinie 

du Mogol 

du Monomotapa 

de la Cafrerie 

du Zanguebar 

de Z'Acadie 

de la Guiane 

de la Barbade 

de la Jama'ique 

de la Martinique 

de la Gouadeloupe 

de la Havane 

du Pont-Euxin 

des Philippines 

des Moluques 

des Antilles 

du Levant 

du Spitzberg 

du Groenland 

du Mexique 

du Paraguay 

du Chili 

du Bresil 

du Canada 



Besides these names of countries, the article, with the preposition 
of, or from, de, is also used with a great number of names of 
provinces, such as, Virginia, Maryland, &c. &c, Picardy, Anjou, 
&c. &c. ; but usage here is the only rule, and time and practice are 
the only means that can afford a foreigner the facility of overcoming 
this difficulty. 

53. When speaking of going to a far distant country, the 
preposition to, ct, and the article are used before the following nouns : 



I am going to : 

the Indias (Plural) 

the Malabar 

the China 

the Congo 

the Cochin China 

the Peru 

the Tonquin 

the Thibet 

the Japan 

the Monomotapa 

the Zanguebar 

the Guiana 

the Barbadoes 



Je vais : 

aux Indes 

au Malabar 

d la Chine 

au Congo 

a la Cochin Chine 

au Perou 

au Tonquin 

au Thibet 

au Japon 

au Monomotapa 



d la Guiane 
d la Barbade 



28 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the Jamaica d la Jama'ique 

the Martinico d la Martinique 

the Guadalupe d la Guadeloupe 

the Havana d la Havane 

the Black Sea au Pont-Euxin 

the Philippian Islands aux Philippines 

the Molucca Islands aux Moluques 

the Antille Islands aux Antilles 

the Spitzberg au Spitzberg 

the Greenland au Groenland 

the Mexico au Mexique 

the Paraguay au Paraguay 

the Chili au Chili 

the Brazil au Bresil 

the Canada au Canada 

54. The following names of countries take the preposition in ) 
dans, and the article ; as, 

I am going to Je vais 

the India {singular) dans Z'Inde 

the Nigritia dans la Nigritie 

the Abyssinia dans Z'Abyssinie 

the Caffraria dans la Cafrerie 

the Acadia dans Z'Acadie 

the East dans le Levant. 

There are many names of provinces which grammatically take the 
preposition in, expressed by en without the article, or dans with the 
article. But as there are no fixed rules about them, we still refer to 
usage, which is the only guide in this matter. 

55. From what has just been said, we may deduce the following 
rules : 

(1.) When speaking of a country we come from, if that country 
is far distant and but little visited by the French, the preposition from, 
de, is used with the article before the noun designating that country. 

(2.) If, on the contrary, the country is not far distant, as England, 
Italy, &c, the preposition from is rendered by de alone. 

(3.) If we are speaking of going to a far distant country, to is 
expressed in most cases by the preposition d and the article, and in a 
few instances by dans and the article. 

(4.) If the country we go to is not a far distant one, to is rendered 
by en, and no article is used ; as, 

I come from Peru and Mexico. Je viens du Perou et du Mexique. 

I return from England and Russia. Je reviens d'Angleterre et de Russie. 

I am going to Brazil and Canada. Je vais au Bresil et au Canada. 

I am going to Nigritia and Abyssinia. Je vais dans la Nigritie et dans Z'Abys- 
sinie. 
I will go to England and Spain. J'irai en Angleterre et en Espagne. 



ARTICLE. 29 



OF NAMES OF CITIES. 

56. As we have already remarked, names of cities, although 
spoken of as a whole, take no article, because the mind never refers 
to their extent ; but when used as common nouns, they follow the 
general rule ; thus we say : 

Paris, London and Madrid are (some) Paris, Londres et Madrid sont de 

beautiful cities. belles villes. 

Havre, New Orleans and New Grenada Le Havre, la Nouvelle Orleans el la 

are (some) commercial cities. Nouvelle Grenade sont des villes 

commerc antes. 

Havre is a common noun, and signifies harbor. On the spot where 
the city now is, was formerly a little chapel where people used to go 
and pray to God for the safety of those of their friends who were at 
sea. When the city was built, it was then called the Harbor of 
Grace; the common name harbor being thus made definite by this 
qualification, which distinguishes this particular one from any other, 
the use of the article became necessary, and the city was called, Le 
Havre de Grace. 

Orleans, as a proper name, designates a French city ; when the 
spot where New Orleans is now situated was first discovered by the 
French, very likely there were among the first settlers some men 
who came from that city ; they called the new one after their native 
place, and in order to distinguish them from one another, they called 
the new settlement the new city of Orleans, which in time was 
changed into, La Nouvelle Orleans. The name Orleans designating 
thus two things of the same kind, became a common noun, and being 
made definite by the qualification attached to its name, requires the 
use of the article. The same explanation applies to all similar cases. 

57. The prepositions used before names of cities will be found in 
the following examples : 

Where do you live 1 I live in Paris. Ou demeurez-vous'? Je demeure d Paris. 

Where are you going 1 lam going to Ou allez-vous 1 Je vais a Paris. 

Paris. 

Where have you bought this carriage'? Ou avez-vous achete cette voiture 1 

I bought it in Paris. Je l'ai achete a Paris. 

When you went to Italy, did you pass Quand vous allates en Italie, passates 

through Paris 1 vous par Pans. 

Where has this robber been caught 1 Oule voleur a-t-il ete pris 1 11 a ete pris 

He was caught in Paris. dans Paris. 

What would France be without Paris "? Que serait la France sans Paris ? 

These prepositions are the only ones which can embarrass 
foreigners ; the others, when used, are the same in both languages. 
3* 



30 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

58. Names of cities may become common nouns in the following 
manner : 

London is the Paris of England. Londres est le Paris de l'Angleterre. 

Paris, in this sentence, represents two things of the same kind, one 
belonging to England, the other to France; it acts, therefore, as a 
common noun, and being rendered definite by the expression of 
England, which distinguishes it from any other, it requires to be 
preceded by the article. 



OF NAMES OF RIVERS USED WITHOUT A PREPOSITION. 

59. Names of rivers, when not preceded by a preposition, take 
the article, for two reasons : 

(1.) Because the common noun river being understood before 
them, its suppression, which is the result of an ellipse, does not 
change the nature of the expression. 

(2.) Besides, these names being then always used in reference to 
the whole extent of their signification, which is that of their course, 
they should take the article before them, as names of countries do in 
similar cases ; thus we say : 

The Mississippi is a large river. Le Mississipi est un grand fleuve ; 

which signifies that the whole extent, or course of the river 
Mississippi, is very large. This rule has no exception. 



OF NAMES OF RIVERS USED WITH A PREPOSITION. 

60. When a name of a river is employed vwith a preposition, it is 
necessary to remark whether this name is used in reference to the 
extent of its meaning or not : in the first case it takes the article, in 
the second it does not ; for instance, in this sentence, 

Which water do you drink 1 I drink the water of the Seine, 

it is evident the noun Seine does not refer to the extent of the course 
of that river ; it only shows what kind of water you drink ; it is a 



ARTICLE. 31 

mere qualification of the preceding noun water; it is therefore 
indefinite, and the above sentence is expressed by, 

De quelle eau buvez-vous 1 Je bois de l'eau de Seine. 

But if I say, 

I drink the water of the Seine because that of the Marne is muddy, 

it is clear that my mind refers to the whole course of these two rivers. 
The meaning of this sentence is : the whole course of the Marne 
being muddy, and the whole course of the Seine being clear, I drink 
the water of the latter in preference to that of the former. The 
article is then necessary to show this view of the mind, and the 
above sentence is thus expressed : 

Je bois de l'eau de la Seine parceque celle de la Marne est bourbeuse. 

61. Although this is the rule, and may be applied with safety in 
most cases, usage requires that in sentences similar to the former of 
the two preceding examples, the article should be used, although the 
extent of the course of the river is not alluded to ; it would be 
against usage, for instance, to say, 

Je bois de l'eau de Mississippi, de Garonne, de Rhone, &c. 

The article the is here required by custom, and this sentence should be, 

Je bois de l'eau du Mississipi, de la Garonne, du Rhone, &c. 

The common noun river* is then understood before these several 
names of rivers, and requires the use of the article on account of the 
ellipse which is the result of its suppression. 

62. We say, also, 

River water is soft, L'eau de riviere est douce, 

Sea water is salted, L'eau de mer est salee, 

without the article, because riviere and mer are used only to qualify 
water, without denning the extent of the signification of the word 
water ; but if we speak of the water which fills up the depths of the 
sea, as a quantity of water, then we say, 

The water of the sea, L'eau de la mer, 

because it signifies the whole of the water which fills up that part of 
the globe which is covered with water. 



32 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF COMMON NOUNS USED SOMETIMES WITH THE ARTICLE 
AND SOMETIMES WITHOUT IT. 

According to what has been said, paragraphs 30, 31, 32, 33 and 
34, the article should not be used before common nouns, unless they 
are employed to express a whole species, a distinct class, or a single 
individual of a whole species, or a part of a whole, when that whole 
is understood by the mind in a definite sense. We will then establish 
the following rules. 



OF NOUNS USED AS TITLES OF CHAPTERS, BOOKS, 
DOCUMENTS, ETC. 

63. When a noun is used as a title of a chapter, it is necessary to 
examine the nature of that noun and the sense in which it is used. 

(1.) When the noun used as a title is employed in its general and 
abstract meaning, whether in the singular or plural number, it takes 
the article ; as, 

Life, la vie. Vengeance, la vengeance. 

Love, l'amour. Reflection, la reflexion, &c. 

These nouns, thus preceded by the article, indicate that the 
chapters of which they are the title, will treat of the ideas, persons 
or things represented by these nouns in a general point of view, 
without reference to any particular instance of life, vengeance, 
love, &c. 

Used without the article, these nouns would indicate that the 
chapter of which they are the title will contain a particular instance 
of love, vengeance, life, reflection, &c. 

64. (2.) Whenever a noun expressing an idea or a fact, is restricted 
in its meaning, as in, 

Life of a wise man, Vengeance of a woman, 

Love of a mother, Reflections of a hermit, &c, 

the article is generally dispensed with, although it is not a fault to 
use it, and the above expressions are rendered by, 

Vie (or la vie) d'un sage. Vengeance, (or la vengeance) d'une 

Amour (or l'amour) d'une mere, or yet femme, or yet une vengeance de femme. 

un amour de mere. Reflexions (or les reflexions) d'un hermite. 

(3.) If the noun used as a title is applied to persons, or things 



ARTICLE. 33 

which have a material representation, as a book, a horse, a dog, &c, 
it is always and without exception preceded by the article ; as, 

The dog, le chien. The dog of Alexander, - le chien d' Alexandre 

Books, les livres. The book for little children, le livre des petita 

enfants, &c. 

65. (4.) "When the noun used as a title does not represent an 
abstract idea, but a tiling which has no material representation, as, 
history, documents, judgment, memoirs, proclamation, &c, it is 
never preceded by the article ; as,. 

Ancient history, Histoire ancienne. 

Documents on the French revolution, Documents sur la revolution Francaise. 

Judgment of the robbers, Jugement, condamnation des voleurs. 

A proclamation of the king, Proclamation du Roi, &c. 

66. (5.) Whenever the noun used as a title of chapter is an 
adjective used as a noun, the article precedes it invariably ; as, 

The converted, le converti. The friend, l'ami. 

The blind man, l'aveugle. The guilty man, le coupable, &c. 

67. (6.) If the noun used as a title of a chapter is employed to 
designate in a particular manner a thing or a person among others of 
the same kind, it is then preceded by the adjective a, un; as, 

An affair of honor, Une affaire d'honneur. 

A bachelor's hall, Un menage de garcon. 

A marriage under Louis the XV., Un mariage sous Louis XV., &c. 

68. (7.) If the name is used to announce that the subject of the 
chapter is about to be scientifically and completely treated, that name 
is preceded by the article and the preposition of, de; as, 

Of the weight of the atmosphere, De la pesanteur de l'air. 

Of chronical diseases, Des maladies chroniques, &c. 

But if the subject, although scientifically, is not completely treated, 
it is preceded by the article and the preposition on, sur ; as, 

On the composition of water, Sur la composition de l'eau. 

On the balloons, Sur les ballons. 



OF DIRECTIONS. 



69. When giving the direction of a person, we may mention the 
name of the street without telling the number of the house where 
that person lives ; as, 

My father lives in Washington street, 



34 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

which means somewhere within the extent of that street, and the 
individual who receives such direction is compelled to go from one 
end of the street to the other to find the house ; the name street 
being then used in reference to the extent of its signification, which 
is the length of each of its sides, requires to be preceded by the 
article ; and the above sentence is rendered by, 

Mon pere demeure dans la rue Washington. 

But if the number is given, as well as the name of the street, as, 
My father lives in Washington street, No. 24, 

the mind refers no longer to the extent of the street ; the person 
spoken to sees the house at once, and the part of sentence, in 
Washington street, No. 24, stands as a sort of adverbial expression, 
as if the house being pointed with the finger, the person who speaks 
should say, My father lives there. In the is then suppressed, and the 
sentence is expressed by, 

Mon pere demeure rue Washington, numero vingt-quatre. 

Although this is the principle, usage allows that the first sentence 
should be rendered by, 

Mon pere demeure dans la rue Washington, 

or simply, rue Washington ; but dans la in the second sentence would 
be a fault. 

70. If, speaking of a man, I say, He is in jail, the noun jail is not 
intended to indicate any particular jail ; it does not refer to the extent 
of the jail in which the man is kept ; the sentence indicates only the 
situation of the man spoken of as being a prisoner ; jail is therefore 
indefinite, and requires no article ; as a consequence, in is expressed 
by en, and the sentence rendered as follows : 

II est en prison. 

If, going to a gentleman's house, and inquiring for him, I am told, 
He is gone to the jail, the noun jail represents the idea of a particular 
jail which the person who speaks knows, and that I am supposed to 
know myself ; that noun is then definite ; it requires the use of the 
article, and the sentence is rendered by, 

II est alle a la prison. 



ARTICLE. 35 

I go to the jail, inquire for the gentleman, and I am told, He is 
in the jail; this sentence signifies that the gentleman is to be found 
within the limits of the jail ; this name is then used in reference to 
the extent of its signification, which extent is that of the jail itself; it 
is definite, and the article should be used with the preposition in, which 
is then rendered by dans, and the sentence is expressed as follows : 

II est dans la prison. 

71. According to the same principle, to be accidental!]/ in town, 
when we live in the country, expressing only the situation of the 
person spoken of, as to be in jail, is rendered by, 

Etre en ville. 

To be in town, meaning to have left the country and to live in town 
altogether, is rendered by, 

Etre a la ville. 

To be in town, meaning to be out of the house and within the limits 
of the town, is expressed by, 

A 

Etre dans la ville. 

If, speaking of a man, I say, He speaks as a sensible man and acts 
as a fool, the two expressions, as a sensible man and as a fool, are 
adverbial, qualify the verb to speak, and are therefore indefinite ; the 
genius of the language requiring that as a should be rendered by in, 
the preposition is expressed by en, and the sentence stands as follows : 

II parle en homme sense et agit en fou. 



OF CASES IN WHICH A NOUN, BEING USED AS THE COMPLE- 
MENT OF A VERB. EXPRESSES WITH THAT VERB BUT ONE 
IDEA, WHICH GENERALLY MAY BE CONVEYED BY ONE WORD. 

72. When a noun is used with a verb and with that verb expresses 
but one idea, the article is dispensed with ; as in, 



Avoir 



'faim, soif, 
dessein 


chaud, 


lV 


oid 


to be hungry, thirsty, warm, cold, &c. 
to intend 


compassion 
honte 
I coutume 
mal 
besoin 
envie, &c. 








to pity 

to be ashamed 

to be in the habit 

to have pain 

to want 

to wish, &c. 



36 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Chercher 


fortune 


to seek fortune 


malheur, &c. 


to seek a quarrel 


„, . $ fortune 
Ccurir I risque 


to run after fortune 
to risk 




r raison 


to challenge 


Demander - 


vengeance 


to ask vengeance 


justice, pardon 


to ask for justice, pardon 




grace, &c. 


to supplicate 




prise 


to give one's enemy an advantage 


Donner 


jour 
parole 


to appoint a day 
to give word 




avis, caution, &c. 


to inform, to caution 


Echapper 


belle 


to make a narrow escape 


( 


' raison 


to hear reason 


Entendre 4 


' raillerie 


to take a joke well 


I 


' malice 


to find out some wit in a throng 




f envie 


to raise envy 




reflexion 


to reflect 


Faire 


honte 


to disgrace one 


honneur 


to do honor 




peur 


to affright 




plaisir 


to do a pleasure 


Gagner 


gros 


to make large profits 


Mettre 


\ ordre (a ses affaire) 
; fin, &c. 


to settle (one's business) 
to put a stop 


Parler 


' raison 

; Francais, Anglais, &c. 


to talk reason 


to speak French, English, &c. 




' envie 


to envy 


Porter « 


bonheur 


to bring good luck 




. malheur 


to bring ill luck 




' garde 


to take care 




patience 


to wait 


Prendre < 


medecine 


to take some medicine 




conge 


to take leave 




^conseil, &c. 


to consult some body 


Rendre 


\ sei-vice 


to assist 




• visite 


to pay a visit 


Savoir 


vivre 


to know how to live 


Tenir 


parole 


to keep one's word 



But when the noun used with the verb as its complement, is 
qualified by an adjective, the adjective a, un, une, or the partitive 
word some, is most generally placed before that noun ; as in, 

To have a terrible fright. Avoir une terrible peur. 

I am extremely hungry. J'ai unefaim extreme. 

To reflect bitterly. Faire des reflexions ameres. 

This brought me an extraordinary good Ceci me porta un bonheur extraordi- 
luck. naire. 

But when the adjective which qualifies the noun is the word great, 
grand, most generally the adjective a, un, is suppressed, as : 



J'ai grand J aim ; I am very hungry. J'ai grand peur; I have a great fear. 



ARTICLE. 37 



OF NOUNS EMPLOYED AS APOSTROPHES AND INTERJECTIONS. 

73. When a noun is employed as an apostrophe or an interjection, 
the article the is dispensed with before that noun ; as, 

Courage, friend, defend yourself! Courage, ami, defendez-vous ! 



OF NOUNS EMPLOYED IN APPOSITION, OR ADJECTIVELY. 

74. When nouns change their primary signification into a qualifi- 
cation, or are used by apposition, the article is dispensed with ; which 
may take place in different ways ; as, 

Are you surprised that Napoleon was Etes-vous surpris que Napoleon ait ete 

more than a man in some of his plus qu'homme dans plusieurs de ses 

acts 1 actes 1 

We see with delight the vast fields Nous voyons avec delices les vastes 

covered with golden harvests, the campagnes couvertes de moissons 

rich gifts of Ceres. dorees, riches dons de Ceres. 

In the first sentence, the word homme is taken adjectively ; in the 
second, the phrase riches dons modifies moissons dorees, by apposition. 
When they are used, at the beginning of an incidental sentence, 
elliptically ; as, 

All the nations of the globe have a Touts les peuples de la terre ont une 

notion more or less clear of a Su- idee plus au moins juste d'un 

prerae Being; an evident proof that Etre Supreme; preuve evidente que 

original sin has not totally obscured le peche originel n'a pas tout-a-fait 

our understanding. obscurci notre jugement. 

The ellipsis here consists in the omission of the words which is, 
before evident proof; which, if expressed, would be followed by a, 
une. 



OF NOUNS USED AS THE OBJECTS OF NOUNS OF SORTS, 
KINDS OR SPECIES. 

75. When a noun is used as the object of another noun expressing 
kind, sort, or species, it is preceded by the preposition of, de, and no 
article ; as in, 

Do you like this kind of peaches 1 Aimez-vous cette espece depeches ? 
I do not like thi3 style of drawing. Je n'aime pas ce genre de dessin. 

4 



38 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

76. Remarks. We must not mistake the above sentences for those 
in which taste and elegance alone cause the article to be suppressed, 
in order to give more rapidity and energy to the style ; as, 

Citizens, foreigners, enemies, people, Citoyens, etrangers, ennemis, peuples, 
kings, emperors, pity and respect rois, empereurs, le plaignent et le 
him. respectent. 

There are many idiomatical and proverbial expressions which are 
constructed without the article, and would sound badly by its addition ; 
but they prove nothing against the rule, and should be considered as 
the result of usage and habit only ; as, 

Poverty is no vice. Pauvrete n'est pas vice, (standing for 

la pauvrete n'est pas un vice.) 



In which usage has suppressed la and un. 



OF THE PRONOUNS MON, TON, SON, NOTRE, VOTRE, LEUR, CE, 
NUL, AUCUN, QUEL QUE, CHAQUE, TOUT, (USED FOR CHAQUE,) 
CERTAIN, PLUSIEURS AND TEL. 

77. The article should not be placed before nouns preceded by the 
pronouns mon, ton, son, notre, voire, lew, ce, nul, aucun, quelque, 
chaque, tout, (used for chaque,) certain, plusieurs and tel ; nor before 
a cardinal number taken absolutely ; as, 

Twenty men fired at me. Vingt hommes firent feu sur moi. 

These pronouns and nouns of number exclude the article, because 
they all operate as the article would before the common nouns ; they 
designate them in a precise manner, and give them the definite 
character which these nouns have in the mind of him who speaks. 

But, if the cardinal numbers have a connection with what precedes 
or follows, they are no longer used in an absolute mode, and must be 
preceded by the article ; as, 

On the occasion of the miracle of the Dans le miracle de la multiplication des 

multiplication of loaves, the apostles pains, les Apotres dirent au Christ; 

said to (the) Christ; We have but Nous n'avons que cinq pains et deux 

Jive loaves and two fishes. Then poissons. Alors Jesus Christ prenant 

Jesus Christ, taking the five loaves les cinq pains et les deux poissons, les 

and the two fishes, blessed them, &c. benit. 



ARTICLE. 39 

In the last part of this sentence, cinq pains and deux poissons are 
connected with what precedes, and must be preceded by the article ; 
whereas, in the first part they are not, and no article is used. 
Although the article the is never used with the possessive pronoun, and 
we cannot say, La madame, les mesdames, for the lady and the ladies, 
la mademoiselle, les mes demoiselles, for the young lady and the young 
ladies, we may very well say, le monsieur, for the gentleman. The 
reason for this rule is, that in the two first expressions, the nouns 
dame and demoiselle being sometimes used by themselves, the words 
madame and mademoiselle, although spelled in one word, present two 
distinct ideas, and signify my lady and my miss; it is therefore evident 
that the expressions the my lady and the my miss, cannot be used, 
whilst in the word monsieur, the two words mon and sieur being 
inseparable, because the word sieur is no longer in use, except in 
court, those two words do not represent the two English words, my 
sire, but only recall to the mind the idea represented by the noun 
gentleman, which being but one word, may very well be preceded by 
the article. 



MEN AND ANIMALS. 

78. Proper names of deities, men and animals, do not take the 
article, if they are not taken in a limited sense ; as, 

God has made the world as it is. Dieu a fait le monde comme il est. 

Mars was the god of armies. Mars etait le dieu des armees. 

Pegasus was the horse of the Parnassus. Pegase etait le cheval du Parnasse. 

But when those nouns are restricted in their meaning, they become 
common nouns applied to one or several individuals, and are used 
definitely ; as, 

The God of Christians. Le Dieu des Chretiens. 

The Mars of the Iliad. Le Mars de lTliade. 

The Pegasus of Apollo. Le Pegase d'Apollon. 

In the first examples, the words Dieu, Mars, Pegase, are used only 
for the sake of their signification. In the last, on the contrary, they 
are used with regard to the extent of that signification ; hence, no 
article with the former, and the article with the latter. 



40 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE ARTICLE WITH SOME ITALIAN AND FRENCH PROPER 
NAMES. 

79. Sometimes, in imitation of the Italians, the French join the 
article to the names of painters, poets, actors and actresses of that 
nation : but they do it only by an elliptical mode of expression ; there 
is always a common noun understood ; so we say, 

La Malaspine, for La Contcssa Malaspine. 

Le Tasse, " II poeta Tasso. 

Formerly, the same mode of expression was used with the name of 
some of our actresses with an idea of contempt or degredation ; it was 
then customary to say : 

Mrs. Lemaure sings like a nightingale. La Lemaure chante comme un rossignol. 
That is a trick played by Mrs. Gaussin. C'est un tour joue par La Gaussin. 

But now, among wellbred people, this mode of expression is no 
longer in use, and would show a want of education in those who 
should employ it. 



OF NOUNS PRECEDED BY AN ADVERB, OR AN EXPRESSION OF 
QUANTITY. 

80. The article is seldom used before a noun afteran adverb or 
word of quantity, and that word of quantity is always itself followed 
by the preposition of, de; as, 

How many apples have you bought 1 Combien de pommes avez-vous achete 1 
He has as much courage as yourself. II a autant de courage que vous. 
A multitude of persons were drowned. Une multitude de personnes furent 

noyees. 

Exceptions. Bien, as an adverb, la plupart, la multiplicity, are 
followed by the preposition of, and the article ; as, 

Many people have perished. Bien des gens ont peri. 

She is very kind. Elle a bien de la bonte. 

Most men have no opinion of their own. La plupart des hommes n'ont pas 

d'opinion a eux. 
Health yields to the number of remedies. La sante cede a la multiplicity des 

remedes. 



ARTICLE. 41 

Plusieurs is followed by the noun without either preposition or 
article, when used as an adjective ; but when used as an adverb, it 
follows the general rule, and takes de after it ; as, 

Several of my friends. Plusieurs de mes amis. 

Several persons have told me. Plusieurs personnes m'on dit. 

Tout, followed by a noun used definitely, requires that noun to be 
preceded by the definite article ; as, 

Everybody says that you are good. Tout le monde dit que vous £tes bon. 

Remarks. Among the words of quantity are placed plus, moins, 
pas, point, jamais, which are followed by of, de, without the article; 



He has more money than I. II a plus <2 'argent que moi. 

He has less good qualities than vices. II a moins de qualites que de vices. 

He has no fortune. II n'a pas or point de fortune. 

He never has any money. II n'a jamais d'argent. 

It must be observed, that in the preceding sentences, where the 
article is not employed, the nouns which are deprived of it are only 
taken with regard to their signification, and not as to the extent of 
that signification ; but we say, with the article, 

How many of the apples you have Combien des pommes que vous avez 

bought have you still ? achetees, avez-vous encore 1 

A great number of the persons who Un grand nombre des personnes qui se 

have been to sea have perished, sont mises en mer ont peri, 

He has many of the qualities and vices II a beaucoup des qualites et des vices 

of his father, &c, de son pere, 

because, in these sentences, the words pommes, personnes, qualitis, 
vices, are restricted by the propositions which follow them, and are 
consequently definite. 



OF THE ARTICLE, WITH NAMES OF MEASURE, WEIGHT AND 

PURCHASE. 

81. In English, the adjective a or an is placed before nouns of 
measure, weight, and purchase ; but in French, the article le, la, or 
les is used in its stead ; as, 

Rye is sold for fifty cents a bushel. Le seigle se vend cinquante sols le boisaeaa. 
Sugar is worth ten cents a pound. Le 6ucre vaut dix sols la livre. 
4* 



42 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Cider costs one dollar a gallon. Le cidre eoute une gourde le gallon. 

It is more than thirty cents for the two C'est plus de trente sols les deux bou- 
bottles. teilles. 

Remark. When speaking of time, we say, 

He receives ten shillings a week. II recoit dix shellings par sernaine. 

It would be a fault to say, la semaine. 



OF THE EXPRESSIONS THE MORE AND THE LESS, WHEN USED 
TOGETHER IN ENGLISH TO FORM A COMPARISON. 

82. The more I see your sister, the less I love her. 

When the adverbs more and less, preceded by the article, are 
repeated in English, to form a comparison, the article the is suppressed 
in French ; the above sentence should then be expressed as follows : 

Plus je vois votre soeur, mains je l'aime. 

The suppression of the article arises from the fact that this sentence 
expresses comparison in a comparative and not in a superlative 
degree ; for it signifies : 

When I see your sister more, I love her less. 

And we shall see, when speaking of the adjective, that the comparative 
does not admit of the article being ever placed before the comparative 
"adverbs more and less. 



OF THE ARTICLE THE USED IN FORMING A COMPARISON IN THE 
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE, 

83. When the article the is used in English with the adverbs more 
and less, to form a comparison in the superlative degree, it is also 
expressed in French ; as, 

Your sister is the most handsome and Votre soeur est la plus belle et la plus 
amiable woman I know. aimable femme que je connaisse. 

It is seen by this sentence, that not only the article the is employed to 
form a superlative, but it is repeated before each adjective used in that 
degree of comparison. 



ARTICLE. 43 

THE ARTICLE THE, WITH THE ADVERBS MORE, LESS AND BEST, 
IS SOMETIMES VARIABLE AND SOMETIMES INVARIABLE. 

84. Of all the ladies who were at the De toutes les dames qui etaient au* 

funeral, your sister was the most funcrailles, votre soeur etait la plus 

distressed. aftligee. 

I have noticed that your sister never J'ai remarque que votre scaur ne 

cries, even when she is the most pleure jamais, meme quand elle est 

distressed. I e plus affligee. 

In the first sentence, there is a comparison established between the 
lady spoken of and others ; the words the lady are understood after 
the verb was, or the noun lady after the participle distressed, which 
compels the agreement of the article ; for the latter part of the 
sentence signifies : 

Your sister was the lady the most distressed, or the most distressed lady. 

In the second sentence, on the contrary, there is no comparison 
established between the lady spoken of and any other ; there is no 
feminine noun understood, which should compel the agreement of the 
article ; the expression the most signifies, in the highest degree : it 
modifies the participle distressed, which, having no number and no 
gender of its own, cannot transfer them to the article ; and the latter 
part of this sentence might be transposed ; as, 

When she is distressed the most, or in the highest degree. 

85. Le plus, le moins, le mieux, the most, the less, the best, are 
always invariable when they relate to a verb or an adverb, because 
then they form an adverbial expression ; as, 

Racine and Boileau are the poets who Racine et Boileau sont les poetes qui 
write the best, who express them- ecrivent le mieux, qui s'expriment le 
selves the most nobly. plus noblement. 

Le mieux, le plus, refer to the verb ecrivent and to the adverb 
noblement, and not to Boileau and Racine. 



OF THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE. 

86. The article is repeated or not before two or more plural nouns, 
united by the conjunction and, et; when it is repeated, the expression 
of the sentence is more energetic ; when it is suppressed, it is more 
rapid ; as in, 



44 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The fathers and mothers of the children Les peres et les meres des enfants 

were at the head of the procession. ouvraient la marche. 

The devotion of fathers and mothers Le devouement des peres et meres pour 

for their children is natural. leurs enfants est naturel. 

But when two or several nouns are in the singular or are not in the 
same number, the article is always repeated ; as in, 

The father and mother of that child are Le pere et la mere de cet enfant sont 

dead. morts. 

The president and judges were of the Le president et les juges furent de la 

same opinion. meme opinion. 



OF THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE, WITH NOUNS UNITED BY THE 
CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 

87. When two nouns are united by or, ou, and they represent 
objects of a different nature, the article is repeated before each ; as in, 

I will send you the brother or the sister Je vous enverrai le frere ou la sceur de 
of my wife. ma femme. 

But if the noun which follows the conjunction or, ou, is only the 
explanation of that which precedes it, the article is suppressed before 
the last ; as in, 

The deputies or representatives of the Les deputes ou representants du peuple 
people were elected for four years. etaient elus pour quatre ans. 



OF THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE, WITH TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED 
BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 

88. When two adjectives serve to qualify the same noun, the 
article is not repeated before the second ; as in, 

How do you like the large and splendid Comment trouvez-vous le grand et mag- 
apartment that we have seen this nifique appartement que nous avons 
morning 1 vu ce matin 1 

There is but one apartment spoken of. But if two adjectives, on 
account of their signification, cannot qualify the same noun, the 
sentence is then elliptical ; there is a noun understood, and the article 
should be repeated before each adjective ; as in, 

I have visited both the ancient and the J'ai visite Vancien et le nouveau con- 
new continent. tinent. 

There are two continents spoken of. 



ARTICLE. 45 

We want red and white wine. Nous voulons du vin rouge et du vin blanc. 

Wine cannot be red and white ; there are two different kinds of wine 
spoken of. 



OF THE ARTICLE WITH TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED BY THE CON- 
JUNCTION OR, OU. 

89. When a noun is preceded by two adjectives, united by or, ou, 
and expressing qualities of a different nature, the article is repeated 
before the second adjective ; as in, 

There are young people who stop II y a des jeunes gens qui ne grandissent 
growing after they are fourteen or plus apres la quatorzieme ou la gum- 
fifteen years old. zieme annee. 

Good or bad treatment cannot tame the Les bons ou les mauvais traitements ne 
ferocity of the tiger. peuvent adoucir la ferocite du tigre. 

But when the adjectives are placed after the noun, the repetition of 
the article is a matter of taste ; as in, 

The sincere or false remorse of the Les remords vrais ou faux du roi, 

king softened the fury of the people. adoucirent la fureur du peuple. 

Speaking of philosophers, we may say Les philosophes anciens ou modernes } ot 

equally well, for the modern or an- les philosophes anciens ou les mod 

cient philosophers. ernes. 



OF CASES IN WHICH THE SENSE OF A SENTENCE CHANGES 
ENTIRELY, BY USING OR SUPPRESSING THE ARTICLE BEFORE 
A NOUN USED AS THE COMPLEMENT OF A VERB. 

90. The sense of some sentences changes sometimes entirely, on 
account of the use or suppression of the article, thus : 

Entendre la raillerie signifies to know how to rally, to jeer. 

Entendre raillerie signifies to know how to take a joke. 

Demander la raison d'une chose means to ask for the cause of a 
thing. 

Demander raison d'une chose is to demand satisfaction for an 
offence. 

Un homme de genie is a man of genius. 

Un homme du genie is a man who belongs to the corps of 
engineers. 



46 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



A FEW EXAMPLES IN WHICH THE ARTICLE IS NOT USED. 



91. I will change these stones into Je changerai ces pierres en pains. 

loaves. 

The education of Rousseau must not be L'education de Rousseau ne doit pas 

taken as a model. etre prise pour modele. 

I will go to Rome. J'irai a Rome. 

He received me with open arms. II me recut d bras ouverts. 

He has arrived in safety at midnight. II est arrive d bon port a minuit. 

To live without bread, on a pound of Vivre sans pain, avec une livre depain t 

bread, on a little bread. d'un peu de pain. 

In all these sentences, the nouns are taken in reference to their 
signification alone, and therefore have no article before them ; as well 
as in the following : 

I have a knave of a brother. J'ai un coquin defrere. 

(Elliptical sentence, which means, — 

Which is of the species of a brother. Qui est de I'espece defrere.) 

An honest father. Un honnete homme de pere. 

(Elliptical sense, meaning, — 

An honest man, having the quality of a Un honnete homme ayant la qualite de 
father. pere.) 

These constructions, as well as all similar ones, are in conformity 
with the rules already laid down, by the means of the ellipsis. 
The following expressions, 

To act by feeling, Agir par sentiment, 

To speak with wit, Parler avec esprit, 

To make a graceful appearance, Representer avec gr&ce, 

To act with passion, Agir par colere, 

To act by spite, Agir par depit, 

To act by love, Agir par amour, 

are adverbial ; and the nouns, being used adjectively with the 
prepositions, are indefinite ; therefore, they admit of no article. 



In order to sum up all that has been said in reference to the use of 
the article, we will give now a table of the same nouns used with and 
without the article, according to the sense in which they are 
employed. 



ARTICLE. 



47 



A TABLE OF THE SAME WORDS EMPLOYED, 



With the article. 
The writings of Cicero are full of the 

soundest ideas. 
Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins des 
idees les plus saines. 
(Restrictive sense of the word ideas, 
used in reference to the extent of 
its signification.) 

Divest yourself of the prejudices of 

childhood. 
Defaites vous des prejuges de l'en- 
fance. 

(Individual sense, restrictive of the 
extent of the signification of the 
word prejuges applied to those of 
infancy only.) 

Enter into the details of the rules of a 

good grammar. 
Entrez dans les details des regies d'une 
bonne grammaire. 

(Individual sense, restricting the 
meaning of the word regies to 
those of a good grammar. Definite.) 

He affects circumlocutions. 
II cherche des detours. 

(Partitive sense without an adjective 
before the noun.) 

Avoid the air of affectation. 

Evitez l'air de /'affectation. 

(Individual sense, reducing the mean- 
ing of the word air to that of affec- 
tation alone. Definite.) 

He loads his memory with the verses 
of Virgil and the phrases of Cicero. 
II se charge la memoire des vers de 
Virgile et des phrases de Ciceron. 
(Individual sense, in which the words 
vers and phrases are limited to 
those of Virgil and Cicero. Defi- 
nite.) 



Essays supported by strong expressions. 
Discours soutenu par des expressions 

fortes. 

(Partitive sense, the adjective placed 
after the noun.) 

He has collected precrpts of morality. 
D a receuilli des preceptes pour la 

morale. 

(Partitive sense, individual.) 



Without the article. 
The writings of Cicero are full of sound 

ideas. 
Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins 
d'idees saines. 

(Indefinite sense of the words sound 
ideas, without reference to the ex- 
tent of their signification; then a 
mere qualification.) 

Have no prejudice with regard to this 

question. 
N'ayez point de prejuges sur cette 
question. 

(Sense vague and indefinite, of the 
word prejuges; no reference as to 
the extent of its meaning.) 

He enters into a long detail of frivolous 

rules. 
II entre dans un long detail de regies 
frivoles. 

(The words regies frivoles used ad- 
jectively to qualify details ', in- 
definite.) 

He affects long circumlocutions. 
II cherche de longs detours. 

(Partitive sense with an adjective 
before the noun.) 

Avoid all that has an air of affectation. 

Evitez tout ce qui a un air d 'affectation. 
(Indefinite sense, in which air means 
any air (vague) and affectation 
only qualifies that noun.) 

He loads his memory with insipid 

verses and phrases. 
II se charge la memoire de vers et de 
phrases insipides. 

(Vague and indefinite sentence, in 
which the words vers and phrases 
are used without any regard to the 
extent of their signification; they 
are insipid, but whose are they 1 
Indefinite.) 

Essays supported by lively expressions. 

Discours soutenu par de vives expres- 
sions. 

(Partitive sense, the adjective placed 
before the noun.) 

A collection of precepts in morals. 
Receuil de preceptes de morale. 

(Sense of sort, qualifying collection 
in a vague and indefinite manner.) 



48 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Make use ot the tokens we agreed 

upon. 
Servez vous des signes dont nous 
sommes convenus. 

(Positive, definite expression, signes 
meaning those we agreed upon 
and no others.) 
Learning has always been the object of 
the esteem, praise, and admiration of 
man. 
Le savoir a toujours ete l'objet de 
Z'estime, des louanges, et de /'admi- 
ration des hommes. 
(Definite, precise meaning of the 
words estime, louanges, admiration, 
confined to those of man.) 
The riches of the mind can only be 

acquired by study. 
Les richesses de t'esprit ne peuvent 
s'acquerir que par l'etude. 
(Definite meaning of the word mind , 
which is here personified, and 
modifies richesses so as to limit the 
extent of its signification.) 
The connexion of proofs makes them 

please and persuade. 
L'enchainement des preuves fait qu' 
elles plaisent et qu'elles persuadent. 
(Sense individual.) 
It is by meditation upon what we read 

that we acquire fresh knowledge. 
C'est par la meditation sur ce qu'on 
lit qu'on acquiert des connaissances 
nouvelles. 

(Partitive sense, in which the noun 
comes before the adjective.) 
The memory of facts is the most 

showy. 
La memoire des faits est la plus bril- 
lante. 

(Sense individual, definite.) 
The aim of good masters should be to 
cultivate the minds and reason of 
their pupils. 
Le but des bons maitres doit etre de 
cultiver l'esprit et la raison de leurs 
eleves. 

(Sense individual, which the two 
words bons ?naitres serve to ex- 
press.) 
The taste of mankind is liable to great 

changes. 
Le gout des hommes est sujet a bien 
des vicissitudes. 

(Sense individual; what is said of 
men in general being applicable to 
each man individually.) 



Let us use tokens to understand each 

other. 
Servons nous de signes pour nous en- 
tendre. 

(Vague and indefinite expression, by 
which the mind remains in doubt 
as to the signes to be used.) 
It is an object of praise, esteem, and 

admiration. 
C'est un objet de louange, d'estime, et 
^'admiration. 

(Vague expression, which does not 
indicate the extent of the meaning 
of the words louange, estime, &c.) 



There is in Peru a prodigious abun- 
dance of useless riches. 
II y a au Perou une prodigieuse abon- 
dance de richesses inutiles. 
(Vague and indefinite meaning, in 
which richesses inutiles only quali- 
fies abondance, without regard to 
the extent of its signification.) 
There is in this book an admirable 

connexion of solid proofs. 
II y a dans ce livre un admirable en- 
chainement de preuves solides. 
(Sense of sort used adjectively.) 
It is by meditation that we acquire 

fresh knowledge. 
C'est par la meditation que l'on ac- 
quiert de nouvelles connaissances. 
(Partitive sense, in which the ad- 
jective comes before the noun.) 

He has only a memory of facts. 
II n'a qu'une memoire de faits. 

(Qualificative expression, indefinite.) 



He has an air of pedantry, that shocks 

you at first sight. 
II a un air de maitre qui choque au 

premier coup d'ceil. 

(Sense of qualification, indefinite.) 



Society of chosen men. 
Societe d'hommes choisis. 

(Adjective sense, hommes choi&is 
qualifying the word societe.) 



ARTICLE. 



49 



He has no need of die lessons you wish 

to give him. 
II n'a pas besom des lecons que vous 

voulez lui donner. 

(Individual sense. Definite.) 
Spain, France, England. 
JL'Espagne, la France, Z'Angleterre. 

(Definite.) 



The island of Japan. 
L'ile du Japon. 

(Name of a distant country, always 
used with die article.) 

He comes from China. 
II vient de la Chine. 

(Name of distant country, used with 
the article.) 

The extent of Persia. 
L'etendue de la Perse. 

(Name of a distant country, always 
preceded by the article.) 

He lives in Peru, Japan, China, East 
or West Indies, die United States, 
Brazil, &c. 

II vit au Perou, au Japon, a la Chine, 
aux Indes orientales, aux Indes oc- 
cidentals, aux Etats Unis, au 
Bresil, &c. 

(Names of distant countries, always 
used with the articles, even when 
expressing the place of residence.) 

The politeness of France. 

La politesse de la France. 

(Sense definite, meaning the polite- 
ness of the whole country called 
Fiance.) 

The circumference of Ireland. 
La circonference de /Trlande. 

The interests of Spain. 
Les interets de Z'Espagne. 
(Same meaning as above.) 

The discovery of the art of printing is 
attributed to Germany. 

La decouverte de Z'imprimerie est attri- 
bute d P Allemagne. 
(Imprimerie used in the whole extent 
of its signification; Allemagne, 
personified expression, definite.) 

He comes from the French Flanders. 

II vient de la Flandre Francaise. 
(Definite.) 



He has no need of lessons. 
II n'a pas besoin de lecons. 

(Adjective sense, lecons qualifying 
the word besoin. Indefinite.) 

The kingdoms of France, Spain, Eng- 
land. 

Les royaumes de France, rf'Espagne, 
d'Angleterre. 
(Qualificative.) 

The island of Corfou. 
L'ile de Corfu. 

(Noun of country, used without the 
article.) 

He comes from Italy. 
II vient dTtalie. 

(Noun of country not far off, used 
without the article.) 

He is in Persia. 
II est en Perse. 

(Noun of country, preceded by en.) 

He lives in Italy, in England, in Malta, 

in Paris, &c. 
II demeure en Italie, en Angleterre, d 
Malte, d Paris, &c. 
(Nouns of countries, always used 
without the article, expressing a 
place of residence.) 



The wines of France. 
Les vins de France. 

(Adjective expression, meaning only 

that the wines are French, and not 

Spanish, German, &c.) 

Irish linen. 
Toile d'Llande. 

Spanish wool. 
Laines ri'Espagne. 

(Same meaning as above.) 

The empire of Germany is divided into 

an infinity of small States. 
L'empire d 'Allemagne est divise en une 
infinite de petits etats. 
(Allemagne used to qualify empire ; 
petits etats used to qualify infinite; 
adjective meaning, indefinite.) 
He comes from Flanders. 
II vient de Flandre. 

(Indefinite, and one of those names 
of country which do not take the 
article, when preceded by ' coming 
from.') 



50 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The water of the Rhine. Seine water. 

L'eau du Rhin. Ean de Seine. 

The water of the sea is blue. Salt-water fish. 

L'eau de la mer est bleue. Poisson de mer. 

(Definite expressions, in which the (Adjective expression, meaning that 

word eau is applied to the whole we do not mean the water of any 

amount of water contained in the other river than the Seine, and 

Rhine and the sea.) any other fish than those of the 

sea.) 

The God of the Christians is good and God is good and merciful. 

merciful. 

Le Dieu des Chretiens est bon et mise- Dieu est bon et misericordieux. 

ricordieux. 

The Jupiter of the pagans was the Jupiter was the greatest of gods. 

greatest of gods. Jupiter etait le plus grand des dieux. 

Le Jupiter des payens etait le plus (Nouns of divinity, used without 

grand des dieux. restriction, classed among proper 

(Nouns of divinity, used restrictively, names.) 
definite.) 



PLACE OF THE ARTICLE, WITH THE ADJECTIVE TOUT, ALL, AND 
THE NOUNS MONSIEUR, MADAME AND MONSEIGNEUR. 

92. The article always precedes the noun, whether that noun is 
qualified by an adjective or not ; the adjective tout, all, is an 
exception ; it precedes the article and the noun which it qualifies ; as 

All men are not good. Tons les hommes ne sont pas bons. 

The nouns monsieur, madame, monseigneur, precede the article when 
they are placed before a title or a name expressing the profession of a 
man ; as, 

Monsieur le docteur; the doctor. Monseigneur Veveque; his reverence the 

Madame la ComtesseJ the Countess. Bishop. 



QUESTIONS. 

22. What is the definition of the article 1 

23. How is the article the expressed 1 

24. 25, 26, 27, 28. How are of the and to the expressed 1 
22. When is the article the used before a noun 1 

29. Is not the article used before adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs and 
prepositions 1 

29, 30. What is the definition of the definite and indefinite signification of a 
noun 1 

31. What is the partitive sense of a noun 1 

When a noun is used in a partitive sense, how are some and any expressed in 
French 1 

32. (1.) Before a noun in a sentence which is not negative 1 



ARTICLE. 51 

34, 35. (2.) Before a noun in a sentence which is negative 1 
33 (3.) Before an adjective followed by a noun 1 

33. Is not the article sometimes used in a partitive sentence before an 
adjective 1 State the exceptions to the general rule. 

34. When a noun is used partitively in a sentence which is negative and 
interrogative, is not the article sometimes used, and in what case 1 

40. When soirie or any are understood in English, should they be expressed 
in French "? 

36. How are some or any expressed when used at the end of a sentence 1 

37. What is the difference between the following expressions : Je prefere le 
en, and Je prefere du vin ? 

38. Voulez-vous prendre du thi, and Voulez-vous prendre le the ? 

39. Donnez-moi du sucre, and Donnez-moi le sucre ? 

43. Is the article used before proper names 1 

44, 45. Is the article used before names of countries used without a prepo- 
sition 1 What are the exceptions 1 

46, 47, 48. In what sense is the article used or suppressed before names of 
countries used with a preposition 1 

49, 50. What is the difference between the meaning of en and dans, used 
instead of in ? 

51. Is the article used before names of far distant countries, and what prepo- 
sitions are used before those names, when speaking of coming from or going to 
those countries 1 

52, 53, 54, 55. What are the names of the countries which take the article 
when speaking of going to or coming from those countries 1 

56, 58. Do names of cities take the article 1 What are the exceptions 1 

57. What are the prepositions used before names of cities 1 

59. Do names of rivers, used without a preposition, take the article 1 

60, 61. When used with a preposition, in what sense do they take the article 1 
63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68. When a noun is used as the title of a book, chapter 

or document, does it take the article 1 

69. When giving the address of a person, are the article and the prepo- 
sition m, dans, always used before the name of the street 1 State when it 
should be used and when not. 

What is the difference between the following expressions 1 

71. II est en ville. II est a la mile. II est dans la ville. 

70. II est en prison. II est d la prison. II est dans la prison. 

72. When a noun is used as the complement of a verb, and forms with that 
verb but one idea, is the article used before that noun 1 

72. When die noun spoken of in the preceding question is qualified by an 
adjective, what is to be done 1 

73. Is the article employed before nouns used to form an apostrophe or an 
interrogation 1 

74. Is the article used before nouns used in apposition to others. 

75. Is the article used before nouns preceded by a noun expressing sort, kind 
or species 1 

76. Is not the article suppressed before nouns, in order to give more rapidity 
to the style 1 

77. Is the article used with the possessive adjective pronouns mon, ton, &c, 
and the indefinite pronouns chacun, tout, plusieurs, &c. 

77. Is the article used with the words monsieur, madame and mademoiselle ? 

78. Is the article used before proper names of deities, men, animals, and is 
not the article used before some proper names of a foreign origin 1 

79. What signification would the article give to the proper name of a female 
French artist 1 

80. When a noun is preceded by an expression of quantity, is the article 
expressed before that noun 1 

82. When the article the is used in English with the adverbs more or less y to 
form a comparative, is it expressed in French *? 



52 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

83. When the article is used with the adverbs most or least, to form a com- 
parison in the superlative degree, is it expressed in French 1 

84, 85. Whqa is the article the variable or invariable with the preceding 
adverbs 1 

86. When two or more nouns are separated by the conjunction and, et, when 
is the article repeated before each noun 1 

87. When two or more nouns are separated by the conjunction or, ou, when 
is the article repeated 1 

88. When two or more adjectives are separated by the conjunction and, et, 
when is the article repeated 1 

89. When two or more adjectives are separated by the conjunction or, ou, 
when is the article repeated 1 

90. What is the difference between the following expressions : Entendre 
raillerie, or, la raillerie. Demander la raison d'une chose, or, raison d'une chose. 
Un homme de genie, or, du genie. 

92. What is the place of the article 1 



OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



OF THE NATURE OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

93. The Substantive is a word which represents a being, or an 
object, or an idea, or a feeling, whatever it may be, existing in reality, 
or only by the power of our mind. 

The substantive is also called Noun, because it is used to name 
the persons, things, ideas, or feelings which they represent. 





Examples. 








homme. 
cheval, 
poisson. 



are nouns representing beings which have the appearance of man, 
horse, and fish. 



Hope, 


esperance, 


Perfection, 


perfection, 


Happiness, 


bonheur, 



are nouns representing ideas and feelings through the operation of 
our minds. 

Tree, arbre, 

Table, table, 

Book, livre, 

are nouns representing objects so designated by the general agree- 
ment of society. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 53 

There are two sorts of substantives. Those which are used to 
designate the whole of the species which they represent ; as, homme, 
cheval, esperance, arbre, are called Common Nouns, because they are 
common to all beings or things of the same kind. 

Those which are used only to designate a single individual or 
thing ; as, Alexandre, Virgile, Paris, Vienne. They are called Proper 
Nouns, because they belong to a single individual of the species 
which they represent, at least in the mind of the person who speaks. 

The substantive has two properties, Number and Gender. 



OF NUMBER IN THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



94. Number is the property which the noun has to represent a 
unity or a plurality. 

Therefore, there are two numbers ; the Singular, which represents 
but a single individual or thing, &c. ; as, 







A man. 


un homme, 








A tree, 


un arbre, 








A hope, 


une esperance, 




and the Plural, 


which represents 


more than one individual 


or thing 


&c. ; 


! as, 


Men, 

Two trees, 
Hopes, 


les hommes. 
deux arbres. 
les esperances 





Among nouns, the generality may be used in either number ; but 
there are some few which have no plural, and others which have no 
singular. We will speak of them hereafter. 



OF GENDER IN THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

95. Gender is the property which a noun has to represent a dis- 
tinction between the two sexes. 

There are, consequently, two genders ; the Masculine, which 
belongs to man and the males among animals, and the Feminine, 
which belongs to females in general ; as, 

Man, homme, 

Lion, lion, 

are masculine, because they represent males. 

5* 



54 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Woman, fe, 

Mare, jument, 

are feminine, because they represent females. 

By imitation, the nouns which represent objects or ideas which are 
neither male nor female, have received one or the other of these two 
qualifications, and some of them are sometimes masculine and some- 
times feminine, according- to their signification. The distinction of 
the genders in those nouns is one of the greatest difficulties of the 
French language for foreigners. We have already, at the beginning 
of this Grammar, given a complete system for the classification of 
nouns ; but in most cases the exceptions are so numerous, that it is 
always prudent not to trust memory alone, and to consult a good 
dictionary. 

We see, then, that the nouns which are neuter in English have not 
the same qualification in French, which is deprived of such a gender. 

To mark the difference in sexes, males and females are sometimes 
called by different names ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Homme, man. Femme, woman. 

Cheval, horse. Jument, mare. 

Taureau, bull. Vache, cow. 

Sometimes the only distinction between them is in their termina- 
tion ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Lion, lion. Lionne, lioness, 

Chien, dog. Chienne, bitch. 

Chat, cat. Chatte, cat. 

This is the best designation, because it shows at once what we 
intend to speak of. 

But often we use the same word to express the male and female ; 



Partridge, 


perdrix. 


(male and female.) 


Eagle, 


aigle. 


St it 


Carp, 


carpe. 


(I it 


Pike, 


brocket. 


(C « 



This mode is quite an imperfection in the language ; but by con- 
sulting the article on genders, this difficulty is easily remedied. 

As to nouns which should be neuter in English, their gender is 
usually arbitrary ; so 



SUBSTANTIVE. 

Book, Livre, Table, Table, 

Hat, Chapeau, Song, Chanson, 

Glass, Verre, Lamp, Lampe, 

Courage, Courage, Anger, Colere, 

are masculine ; are feminine; 

although they have no connection with either sex. 



55 



FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS. 

96. As there are a great quantity of words employed as nouns, 
which are used in either gender, it is necessary to show how they dif- 
fer, when they represent a masculine or feminine idea, thing or being. 
Masculine nouns ending with a consonant or with the vowels e, i and 
u, form their feminine termination by the addition of a mute e; as, 

Le serira, la serine ; a canary bird. Un idktf, une idio£e ; an idiot. 

Le bienvenw, la bienvenwe ; welcome. Un jardinier, une jardiniere ; a male or 

female gardener. 

The following nouns are an exception to this rule : 

Bachdier, a bachelor. Paysan, a peasant. Sot, a fool. 

Due, a duke. Juif, a Jew. Veuf, a widower. 

Mattel, a mortal. Bailli, a bailiff. Malin,& shrewd fellow. 

Quaker, a quaker. Abbe, an abbot. Favori, a favorite. 
Roi, a king, &c. 

Which make in the feminine : 

Bachellete, paysanne, sotte, duchesse, Juive, veuve, mortelle, 

Baillive, maligne, Quakeresse, abbesse, favorite, reine, &c. 



FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS ENDING WITH A MUTE E. 

97. Masculine nouns ending with a mute e do not change their 
termination in the feminine ; as, 

Un esclave, une esclave J a male or fe- Un sauvage, une sauvage ', a male or 
male slave. female savage, &c. 

Un impie,uneimpie; an impious man or 
woman. 

Some few nouns, however, although ending with a mute e, form 
their feminine termination by changing e into esse ; as, 



56 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Arte, anesse ; an ass. Pretre, pretresse ; a priest, a priestess. 

Tigre, tigresse; a tiger. Traitre, traitrcsse; a traitor, a traitress. 
Chanoine, chanoinesse J a canon, a can- Ivrogne, ivrognesse ; a drunkard, a 

oness. drunken woman. 

Prince, princesse ; a prince, a princess. Pauvre,pauvrcsse ; a pauper, a beggar- 

Negre, negresse J a negro, a negress. woman, &c. 



FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS ENDING IN EN, ON, ET. 

98. Nouns ending in en, on and et in their masculine signification, 
form their feminine in doubling their last consonant and adding a 
mute e; as, 

Un Chretien, une Chretienne ; a Chris- Unfripon, une friponne ; a cheat. 

tian. Tin coquet, une coquette ; a beau, a co- 

XJn Indien, une Indienne ; an Indian. quette, &c. 

Exceptions : 

Compagnon, a companion ; Patron, a patron ; Indiseret, a telltale, 

make in the feminine, 

Compagne, patrone and patronesse, indiserdte. 



FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS ENDING IN EUR. 

99. Masculine nouns ending in eur, and derived from present par- 
ticiples, form their feminine termination by changing eur into euse; as, 

Chanteur, chanteuse ; a singer, (from Connaisseur, connaisseuse j a connois- 

chanlant, present particle of chanter, seur, (from connaissant, present par- 

to sing.) ticiple of the verb connditre, to 

Boudeur, boudeuse ; one that pouts, know, &c.) 
(from boudant, present participle of 
bouder, to pout.) 

Many other nouns ending in eur in the masculine, form their 
feminine termination by changing eur into rice; as, 

Un bienfaiteur, a benefactor ; une bien- Un calomniateur , une calomniatrice } a 

faitrice, a benefactress. slanderer. 

Un protecteur, a protector ; une protcc- Un ambassadeur, an ambassador ; une 

trice, a patroness. ambassadrice, an ambassadress, &c. 

Finally, a few nouns change eur into eresse for the feminine ; as, 



SUBSTANTIVE. 57 

Bailleur, bailleresse ; the lesser. Enchanteur, enchanteresse ; enchanter, 

Chasseur, chasseresse J hunter, huntress. enchantress. 

Deidn, devineresse ; a diviner, diviner- Pecheur, pecheresse J a sinner, male and 
ess. female. 

Vengeur, vengeresse ; an avenger. 



FORMATION OF THE FEMININE rN NOUNS ENDING IN X. 

100. Masculine nouns ending in x, form their feminine termination 
by changing # into se; as, 

Epoux, epouse ', husband, wife. Tin malheureux , une malheureuse J a 

Tin paresseux, une paresseuse ; a lazy wretched man or woman, 
man or woman. 



OF NOUNS WHICH ARE EITHER MASCULINE OR FEMININE, ACCORDING 
TO THEm NUMBER AND SIGNIFICATION. 

101. Nouns have generally but one gender; however, there are 
some which are sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine : this is the 
result of habit, men having applied to those nouns, sometimes a mas- 
culine, sometimes a faminine idea. We will examine successively 
those which are the most generally used in either gender. 

102. Aigle, an eagle. 

Aigle, eagle, is masculine when it designates the male of the bird 
of prey of that name, and when, being used metaphorically, it 
signifies, a man of genius; there is also a kind of paper called grand 
aigle, that is to say, of the largest size. 

Aigle is feminine, if it designates the female of the bird of prey, 
and also when it signifies a military standard, or when used in 
speaking of coats of arms, constellations and emblems ; and also 
when it designates a kind of fish called V aigle marine. 

103. Amour, love, Cupid. 

Amour, love, in the singular is always masculine, either in prose or 
in poetry ; it is also masculine in the plural when it signifies : (1.) 
All kinds of love. (2.) When it designates little Cupids which are 
used as emblems in the arts. 



58 FEENCH GEAMMAE. 

Amour, in the plural, is feminine when it implies the idea of a 
passion ; as, 

Foolish inclinations, folles amours. First love, les premieres amours. 

104. Automne, autumn. 

Automne, autumn, was formerly of either gender ; it is now always 
masculine, as well as the names of the other seasons. 

105. Couple, couple. 

Couple is masculine when it designates two animated beings 
united by an act of their will, a feeling, or any other cause making 
them act in concert ; as, 

A happy couple, (speaking of man and Un couple de chevaux, a team of two 

wife,) un heureux couple. horses, &c. 

A couple of pigeons, un couple de 

pigeons, (a male and a female.) 

Couple is feminine when it only conveys the numerical idea of two 
persons or things of the same kind accidentally put together, without 
any idea of feeling, participation or common purpose between them ; 

as, 

A couple of pigeons, (meaning two A couple of horses, une couple de che- 

pigeons,) une couple de pigeons. vaux, (meaning only two horses, 

A couple of families, une couple de me- without the idea of their forming a 

nages. team.) 

106. Delice, delight. 

Delice is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural ; but 
for the sake of euphony we say, 

Un de mes plus grands delices, One of my greatest delights, 

with grands in the masculine, because it would be shocking to meet 
in the same proposition with two adjectives of different genders, 
relating to the same noun. 

107. Enfant, child. 

Enfant is masculine when it designates a boy and feminine when 
it points out a girl. 

108. Exemple, example, copy. 

Exemple is now used in the masculine, whether it signifies an 
example or a copy. 



SUBSTANTIVE. &V 

109. Foudre, thunderbolt, vengeance, fury, &c. 

Foudre is feminine whenever it is used to designate a thunderbolt ; 
it is of either gender, if it signifies the weapon of Jupiter. It is still 
feminine when used for vengeance, Jury, &c. ; as, 

La foudre est dans ses yeux. Anger is in his looks. 

Foudres in the plural, used metaphorically, and signifying either 
pieces of cannon, celestial anger, or excommunication from the court 
of Rome, is of either gender. 

Foudre, applied to man, and signifying a great conqueror, a man 
who has gained many victories, is always masculine ; thus we say, 

This general was a thunderbolt of war. Ce general etait un foudre de guerre. 

Speaking of a great orator, we also say, 

C'est un foudre d'eloquence • 

110. Gens, people, men. 

Gens, people. This word in the plural is masculine when fol- 
lowed by an adjective ; as, 

They are happy people. Ce sont des gens heureux. 

But it is feminine when preceded by' an adjective ; as, 

They are old people, Ce sont de vieilles gens. 

With tout, all, it is masculine, if that adjective is alone ; as, 

All honest people, Tous les gens de bien. 

When tout is followed by another adjective, gens is masculine, 
provided that adjective does not change its termination in the fem- 
inine ; as, 

All honest people, Tous les honnetes gens. 

But it is feminine when the adjective changes its termination ; as, 

All the old people, Toutes les vieilles gens. 

However, usage requires, in order to show its despotism, that the 
pronouns and adjectives which refer to that word should be in the 
masculine whenever they are placed after it ; as, 

Old people are troublesome ; thpy are Les vieilles gens sont ennuyeux ; Us ne 
good for nothing. sont bons a rien. 



60 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

111. Hymne, hymn. 

Hymne is feminine when it designates a song in honor to God ; but 
it is masculine when it signifies a profane song in honor to pagan gods 
or heroes. 

112. Jujube, jujube. 

Jujube is masculine when it designates the paste made of that fruit, 
and feminine when it signifies the fruit itself. 

113. CEuvre, work. 

CEuvre is masculine when it designates a great work or enterprise ; 
it is still of the same gender when it is used to signify such a work as 
a picture, an engraving, a statue or a piece of music ; but it is 
feminine when it is an act, whatever it may be, or some production 
of the mind ; as, 

He does good deeds, II fait de bonnes cewvres. 

Colhplete works of Racine. (Euvres completes de Racine. 

114. Orge, barley. 

Orge is feminine in the singular and plural ; the only two cases in 
which it is masculine are the following expressions : 

Pearl barley, orge perle. Peeled barley, orge monde. 

115. 'Orgue, organ. 

Orgue is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural ; but 
if preceded by un, de, one, of, it remains masculine in either number, 
for the sake of euphony ; as in, 

Voila un des plus beaux orgues cme je This is one of die most beautiful organs 
connaisse. I know. 

117. Pdques or pdque, Easter day. 

Pdques, a holiday among the Christians, is written with an s, is not 
preceded by the article, and belongs to the masculine gender. 

Pdque, a holiday among the Jews, is written without an s; it takes 
the article, and is feminine. We also say in the plural, 

Palm Sunday, Pdques Fleuries, 

To receive the sacrament at Easter, Faire ses Pdques, 

pdques being feminine plural. 

117. Parallele, parallel. 
Parallele is masculine when it signifies a comparison ; it is fem- 
inine when it designates a line as being parallel to another. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 61 

118. Pendule, pendulum, clock. 
Pendule is masculine when it signifies pendulum, and feminine 
when it means a clock. 

119. Periode, pitch, period. 
Periode, when meaning pitch, is masculine, and feminine when it 
signifies a period. 

120. Personne, a person, nobody, anybody. 
Per sonne used as a noun is feminine, and masculine when employed 
as a pronoun. 

121. Quelque chose, some thing. 
Quelque chose, when followed by a verb in the subjunctive mood, is 
feminine ; as in, 

Whatever may be the thing he has Quelque chose qu'il ait faite ou entre- 
done, or attempted to do, he has prise, il a echoue. 
been unsuccessful. 

In any other case, quelque chose is always masculine, on account of 
its vague and indefinite meaning ; as, 

Give me something pretty, Donnez-moi quelque chose de joli. 

I will give you something good, Je vous donnerai quelque chose de Ion. 

Autre chose is masculine, also, when it conveys an indefinite mean- 
ing ; as in, 

There is some other news, II y a autre chose de nouveau, 

but it is feminine when it has a definite meaning ; as in, 

This is another thing still more won- C'est une autre chose encore plus mer- 
derful. veilleuse. 

122. Reglisse, liquorice. 
Reglisse, a plant, is feminine. 

Reglisse, a paste, is masculine. 

123. Sentinelle, sentry. 

Sentinelle in prose is always feminine, but in poetry it is of either 
gender. 

124. Trompette, trumpet. 
Trompette is masculine when it designates the individual who plays 
on that instrument, and feminine when it signifies the instrument 
itself. 



62 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



125. Besides these nouns, which are the most conspicuous among 
those which are used in either gender, there are some more which 
we will indicate only by the change in their signification, according to 
gender. 



Masculine. 

Aide, aid de camp. 

Aide, a cook assistant, if a man ; but 
it is feminine if a woman. 

JBarde, a poet, among the ancient Celts. 

Bourgogne, Burgundy wine. 

Cartouche, a sort of ornament in paint- 
ing, sculpture, &c. 

Champagne, wine. 

Coche, a public coach, a barge to con- 
vey passengers. 

Cornette, a standard bearer. 

Crepe, a crape. 

Echo, an echo. 

Enseigne, an ensign, a standard bearer. 

Espace, extent between two points or 

space, speaking of time. 
Forct, a drill, a piercer. 
Guarde, a keeper, a warden. 
Guide > a guide. 
Livre, a book. 
Manche, a handle. 
Manoeuvre, a laborer. 



Memoire, a bill. 
Mode, the mood of a verb. 
Office, service, business, prayers. 
Page, a page at court. 



Aide, assistance. 
Aides, tones. 

Barde, a thin slice of pork. 
Bourgogne, a province of France. 
Cartouche, a cartridge. 

Champagne, a province of France. 
Coche, a notch, a sow. 

Cornette, a cavalry standard, a woman's 

morning head-dress. 
Crepe, a pancake. 
Echo, a nymph of that name. 
Enseigne, a sign of a shop. 
Espace, space, as used by printers. 

Foret, a forest. 

Garde, watch, hilt, a nurse. 

Guide, a rein for driving a horse. 

Livre, a pound. 

Manche, a sleeve, the French channel. 

Manoeuvre, a manoeuvre of soldiers, 
the working of a ship, when used 
figuratively, and meaning action. 

Memoire, memory. 

Mode, fashion. 

Office, pantry, larder. 

Page, a page in a book. 



OF NUMBER IN SUBSTANTIVES. 

126. Number, in nouns, is the property which they have of 
denoting either one or several persons or things. 

In the first case they are said to be in the singular ; as, A man, a 
table, &c, un homme, une table, &c. 

In the second, they are said to be in the plural ; as, Men, tables, 
les hommes, les tables. 

Proper names, which present to the mind the idea of a single 
individual or thing, have, generally, no plural ; as, Washington, 
Napoleon, &c, London, Paris, &c. ; but we may use in the plural, 
proper names of persons, when we apply them to all persons who 
resemble those who had them ; thus we say, properly, 



SUBSTANTIVE. 63 

Nature produces but few such men as La nature ne produit que raremeat des 
Washington, Napoleon. Washington*, des Napoleons. 

In such cases proper names become common. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IN NOUNS. 

127. There are nouns whose plural is similar to the singular ; they 
are those which end in the singular with s, z, x; so we say, 

L'avis, les avis; le choix, les choix; le The advice, the advices ; the choice, 
nez, les nez. the choices ; the nose, the noses. 

128. Nouns ending in au, eau, eu, ceu, ieu, ou, form their plural by 
the addition of an x; as, 

Lejoyau, les joyaux; l'eau, les eaux; The jewel, the jewels; the water, the 
le jeu, les jeux ; le vceu, les vceux ; waters ; the play, the plays ; the vow, 
l'essieu, les esssieux; le chou, les the vows; the axle-tree, the axle- 
choux. trees; the cabbage, the cabbages. 

The nouns, nail, clou, hole, trou, male-cat, matou, cent, sou, take 
an 5 in the plural. 

129. The nouns ending in al, ail, change their termination into aux 
in the plural ; as, 

Animal, animaux ; travail, travaux ; Animal, animals; work, works; lease, 
bail, baux. leases. 

But there are some of these terminations which only take an s in 
in the plural ; as, ball, bal, pale, pal, callosity, cal, treat, regal, place, 
local, carnival, carnaval, take an s in the plural ; as, bals, pals, cals, 
&c. ; and attire, attirail, capuchin, camail, detail, detail, fan, eventail, 
scarecrow, epouvantail, rudder, gouvernail, mall, mail, gate, portail, 
seraglio, serail, make in the plural, attirails, camails, &c. ; trave, 
travail, a machine to attach horses when shod, makes travails in the 
plural ; sheepfold, bercail, has no plural ; cattle, betail, also has none ; 
it is in the plural expressed by bestiaux, which has no singular. 
But, as I have already said, it is necessary to resort to a good 
dictionary. 

130. Forefather, a'icul, heaven, del, eye, ceil, make their plurals 
thus, a'ieux, cieux, yeux ; but we say, des dels de lit, testers of a bed ; 
des aieuls, grandfather and grandmother; dels d'un tableau, the sky 
of a picture ; ovals, ceils de bceuf. 



64 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

131. All nouns which are not included in any of the preceding 
classifications, form their plural by the addition of an s ; as, roads, 
chemins, tables, tables, merchants, marchands, laws, his, diamonds, 
diamants, accidents, accidents, &c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY OF NOUNS ENDING IN ANT, ENT. 

132. The nouns ending in ant, ent, in the singular, must, in all 
possible cases, keep in the plural the t of the singular ; it would be 
absurd otherwise. Let us suppose that a foreigner finds, in writing, 
the word enfans, children; according to the rule, which says that the 
plural is formed from the singular by the addition of an 5, if that 
foreigner should use that word in the singular, he would commit a 
barbarism ; for in removing the s from the word enfans it remains 
enfan, which is no French word at all. 

We must then write, a diamond, un diamant, diamonds, des dia- 
mants; a present, un present, presents, des presents; a glove, un 
gant, gloves, des gants. 

We insist upon this rule, because a number of grammarians pretend 
that the t may be suppressed in words of more than one syllable, 
although they do keep it in monosyllables, without any reason 
whatever for not acting alike in both cases. 

The noun people, gens, the singular of which is very seldom 
used, is the only one that does not keep the t in the plural. 

133. The adjective, all, tous, follows the same rule. These two 
exceptions are only the result of habit, the greatest tyrant in the 
construction of language. 



OF THE NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO PLURAL. 

134. They are; First. The names of metals, in their general 
meaning ; as, gold, Vor, silver, V argent, iron, lefer, copper, le cuivre, 
&c. 

135. Secondly. The nouns which designate ordinary virtues ; as, 
truth, lafoi, charity, la charite, sincerity, la sincerity. 

136. Thirdly. Verbs in the infinitive used as nouns, and to which 
an adjective cannot be joined ; as, raising, le lever, retiring, le coucher, 
drinking, le boire, sleeping, le dormir, Sic. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 



65 



But those to which an adjective may be joined, have the two 
numbers ; as, dining, le diner, laughing-, le rire, &c. 

137. Fourthly. Adjectives used as nouns, and which present to 
the mind only the idea of a metaphorical object ; as, the beautiful, le 
beau, the true, le vrai, the useful, Vutile, &c. 

138. Fifthly. A series of words, as the following : 



Absinthium, 


absinthe. 


Glory, 


gloire. 


Frankincense, 


encens. 


Fame, 


renommee, 


Eucharisity, 


eucharistie. 


Purple, 


pour pre. 


Extreme-unction, 


extreme-onction. 


Thirst, 


soif. 


Esteem, 


estime. 


Sleep, 


sommeil. 


Hunger, 


faim. 


Rest, 


repos. 


Anger, 


courroux. 







OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 

139. Among the nouns of foreign origin, there are only those 
which usage has made French that take the sign of the plural ; the 
following are the only ones which our best writers use with plural 
terminations. 



Des operas, 
Des impromptus, 

Des duos. 
Des echos. 
Des accessits, 
Des agendas, 
Des alineas, 
Des apartes. 
Des bravos, 
Des concertos, 
Des debets, 
Des quiproquos, 
Des zeros, 
Des quolibets, 



operas. 

impromptus. 

duetts. 

echoes. 

accessits. 

note-books. 

new paragraphs. 

words spoken aside. 

bravos. 

witty conceits. 

balances of account. 

mistakes. 

cyphers. 

quodlibets. 



Des deficits, 
Des examens, 
Des factums, 
Des imbroglios, 
Des incognitos, 
Des macaronis, 
Des magisters, 
Des panoramas, 
Des numeros, 
Des pensums, 
Des pianos, 
Des recipisses, 
Des exeats, 
Des satisfecits, 



deficits. 

examinations. 

memoirs. 

imbroglios. 

incognitos. 

macaronis. 

village school-masters. 

panoramas. 

numbers. 

tasks. 

pianos. 

receipts. 

passes to leave college. 

bills given to children 

to testify of their good 

conduct. 



All other nouns of foreign origin do not take the mark of the 
plural. 



OF THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IN PROPER NAMES. 

140. When a proper name is used as such, it does not take the 
sign of the plural ; but it changes its termination if used as a common 
noun. 

6* 



66 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF PROPER NAMES REPRESENTING TWO OR MORE INDIVIDUALS IN 
THE SAME FAMILY. 

141. Proper names representing two or more individuals in the 
same family remain invariable ; as in, 

My father was acquainted with the two Mon pere etait lie avec les deux Ra- 

Racine and the two Corneille. cine et les deux Corneille. 

Spain is proud of having given birth to L'Espagne s'honore d'avoir produit les 

the two Seneque. deux Seneque. 

However, we write with the plural termination, Les Cesars, les 
Gracques, les Horaces, les Scipions, les Stuarts, les Guises, les Condis, 
les Bourbons, &c., either in imitation of the Latins, who used the 
plural in all cases, or because most of these words are rather used as 
titles or surnames than names. Some of them are even no longer 
used to designate individuals personally, but classes of individuals and 
families. 



OF PROPER NAMES WHICH HAVE BECOME COMMON NAMES. 



142. I will examine the three tragedies 
of CEdipe with impartiality. 

More false than true Elzevirs are to be 
found in most libraries. 



J'examinerai les trois CEdipes avec 

une egale exactitude. 
On trouve plus de faux que de vrais 

Elzevirs dans la plupart des biblio- 

theques. 



In these two examples, CEdipes and Elzevirs are written in the 
plural, because they signify, in fact, tragedies of which the subject is 
called CEdipe, books which have been printed by Elzevir. 

We also say, Des Raphaels, des Poussins, &c, instead of, Pictures 
painted by Raphael, Poussin, &c, because these proper names are so 
often used that habit has changed them into common names. 



OF THE NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO SINGULAR. 
143. Several nouns have no singular ; as, 



Ancestors, 


ancelres. 


Manners, 


Archives, 


archives. 


Tears, 


Coat of arms, 


armoiries. 


Matins, 


Espousals, 


accordailles. 


Vespers, 
Darkness 


Bushes, 


broussailles. 


Scissors, 


ciseaux. 


Rubbish, 



mceurs. 
pleurs, 

matines, 
vepres. 
tenebres. 
decombree 



SUBSTANTIVE. 67 

OF NOUNS OF VIRTUES AND VICES, AND OF THOSE WHICH REPRESENT 
IDEAS AND SENTIMENTS IN THEffi ABSTRACT MEANING. 

144. The nouns alluded to in the title of this chapter, have no 
plural in their abstract meaning ; but when they are used to designate 
the effects, acts or results which arise from the existence of any 
virtue, vice, idea or sentiment, they follow the general rule ; therefore, 
in the following sentences, 

Kindness is a disposition which cannot La bonte est une qualite qui ne saurait 

be too highly appreciated, etre trop appreciee, 

Beauty disappears, wit remains, La beaide passe, Vesprit reste, 

Man spends his life in looking for hap- L'homrae passe sa vie a chercher le 



piness, 



bonheur, 



Charity is agreeable to God and useful La charite est agreable a Dieu et utile 
to man, a l'homme, 

the nouns bonte, beaute, bonheur and charite, being used in their 
abstract meaning, as representing virtues or qualities but not the 
consequences of those qualities, have no plural ; but in the fol- 
lowing, 

Your family overwhelmed with acts Votre famille m'a comble de bontes, 

of kindness, 

There are beauties for all times and II y a des beavies de tous les temps et 

countries, de tous les pays, 

With how many trifling instances of De combien de petits bonheurs l'homme 

good luck is not the worldly man du monde n'est-il pas entoure 1 

favored 1 

This woman is a good Christian ; she Cette femme est bonne Chretienne; elle 

is very charitable, fait beaucoup de charites, 

the nouns bontes, beautes, bonheurs and charites no longer express 
mere qualities or abstract ideas ; they represent several acts of 
kindness, different kinds of beauty, instances of good luck and 
charity, and therefore, conveying an idea of individualities, they take 
the sign of the plural. 

Remark. If the above names of virtues, vices, &c, do not take 
the plural, it is because we consider as a whole what the mind cannot 
divide into several distinct individuals ; and besides, those names which 
the Latins had deified, have become in our language somewhat proper 
names, and if in poetry, and even in prose, we sometimes, in elevated 
style, employ the plural instead of the singular, it is in order to 
restore to these words something of the individuality which they had 
lost by their transformation. 



D» FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 
Of the formation of their plural. 

The compound nouns that have not yet been introduce^ into the 
language as making a single word, that is to say, the distinct parts of 
which are still united by a hyphen, are written in the plural in the 
most irregular manner, and grammarians are far from agreeing about 
the rules which ought to regulate them ; but there is a general 
indication which finds its application in most cases, and may be taken 
as a sure guide. I mean the nature and particular sense of the words 
of which they are composed, and which show easily those that require 
either of the two numbers. 

Such is the general principle ; the application of which will be 
rendered easy by the assistance of the following rules : 

OF NOUNS FORMED OF A NOUN AND AN ADJECTIVE. 

145. When a compound noun is formed of a substantive and an 
adjective, both take the plural ; as, 

A false-key, une fausse-cle. Some false keys, des fausses-cles. 

A freemason, unfranc-mapon. Freemasons, des francs-mapons. 

Exceptions. 

A blank, Un blanc-seing, Des blancseings. 

(Papers signed in blank.) 

A terra plain, Un terre-plein, Des terre-pleins. 

(Places full of earth.) 

A lighthorseman, Un chevau-leger, Des chevau-leger s. 

A grandmother, Une grand'-mere, Des grand' -meres. 

A solemn mass, Une grand'-messe. Des grand' -messes. 

In the two first examples, the sense does not allow the use of the 
plural for the words blanc and terre; in the third, a fantastic usage 
refuses to the noun the mark of the plural ; in fine, in the two 
last, the adjective remains unchanged, on account of euphony in 
pronunciation. 

When, in compound nouns, there is a word which is never used by 
itself, this word is considered as an adjective, and takes the plural ; 
as in, 

Wary-angle, Pie-grieche, Des pies-grieches. 

Were-wolf, Loup-garou, Des loups-garous . 

Gum-gutta, Gomme-gutte, Des gommes-guttes, &c. 

In these examples, the words grieche, garou, and gutte, are never 
used by themselves, and have no sense, unless they are joined to the 
above nouns. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 69 

OF NOUNS FORMED OF TWO NOUNS. 

146. When a compound noun is formed of two substantives placed 
in immediate contact with each other, both take the mark of the 
plural ; as. 

Country-town, Un chef-lieu, Des chefs-lieux. 

Wolf-dog, Un chien-loup, Des chiens-loups. 

Cauliflower, Un cbou-fleur, Des choux-fleurs , &c. 

It is evident that these locutions may be turned in this way : The 
towns which are chief towns, the dogs which are like wolves, the 
flowers which turn into cabbages, &c. 

Exceptions. 

Fig-pecker, Un bec-figues, Des bec-figues. 

(Birds whose beak pecks figs.) 
Painter's maul-stick, Un appui-main, Des appuis-main. 

(Sticks to lean the hand upon.) 
A hospital for the sick in Paris, Un hotel-dieu, Des hotels-dieu. 

(Places to worship God, or under the patronage of God.) 
A toothless man, Un breche-dents, Des breche-dents. 

(A man who has a breach in his teeth.) 

OF NOUNS FORMED OF TWO NOUNS SEPARATED BY A PREPOSITION. 

147. When a noun is composed of two substantives united by a 
preposition, the first takes the mark of the plural ; as, 

A rainbow, Un arc-en-ciel, Des arcs-en-ciel. 

(Bows which are in the skies.) 
A master-piece, Un chef-d'ceuvre, Des chefs d'oeuvre. 

(Works which are chief ones as to their merits.) 

Exceptions. 

Nonsense, Un coq-a-1'ane, Des-coq-a-1'ane. 

(Discourses without sense, where one passes from the cock to the ass?) 
Temporary residence, Pied-a-terre, Des pied-a-terre. 

(Places where one puts only his foot on the ground.) 
Face to face, Tete-a-tete. Des tete-a-tete. 

(Interviews during which a person is alone with another.) 

In these sentences the meaning of the words cock, foot, head, does 
not allow them to be placed in the plural. 

OF NOUNS FORMED OF A VERB, A PREPOSITION, OR AN ADVERB, AND 
A NOUN. 

148. When a substantive, in a compound noun, is joined to a verb, 
a preposition, or an adverb, the substantive alone takes the plural, if 
there is plurality in the meaning ; so we write with an s the following 
words : 



70 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

A counter-blow, Un contre-coup, Des contre-coups. 

(Blows in the counter-part.) 
Herald, Avant-coureur, Des avant coureurs. 

(Runners who run ahead.) 
The latter end of autumn, Arriere saison, Les arriere saisons. 

(Seasons which are behind-time.) 

149. Bat we write without an s in the plural, because there is no 
plurality in the idea, the following words : 

Night-cap, Serre-t£te, Des serre-tete. 

(Caps that keep the head tight.) 
Alarm-clock, Reveille-matin, Des reveille-matin. 

(Clocks which waken in the morning.) 
Counter-poison, Contre-poison, Des contre-poison. 

(Remedies against poison.) 

Finally, we write with an 5, in the singular as well as in the 
plural, the following nouns, because there is always plurality in their 
signification : 

One or several towels, Un ou des essuye-mams. 

(One or several towels to wipe the hands.) 
One or several snuffers-bearers, Un ou des porte-mouchettes. 

(One or several instruments to hold the snuffers.) 
One or several toothpicks, Un ou des cure-dents. 

(One or several sticks to clean one's teeth.) 
One or several keys-bearers, Un ou des porte-cZes. 

(One or several men who carry the keys.) 

OF NOUNS FORMED OF TWO INDECLINABLE WORDS. 

150. When a compound noun is formed only of words which never 
vary, as verbs, prepositions, adverbs, none of these words take the 
mark of the plural ; as, 

Servant-fees, Pour-boire, Des pour-boire. 

A man who never laughs, Un pince-sans-rire, Des pince-sans-rire. 

A skeleton-key, Un passe-partout, Des passe-partout. 

Although these five rules contain what is of general application in 
the language to compound nouns, it will always be well, when a 
doubt arises in the mind, to refer to a good dictionary, as the only 
sure guide in so complicated a matter. 



OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NOUN IN LANGUAGE. 

151. After having described the substantive in its different phases, 
it remains now to show how to use it as a part of speech, what place 
it occupies, and what its functions are in the construction of sentences. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 71 

The substantive has three functions in speech ; it is either subject, 
or object, or used in the shape of an apostrophe. It is a subject 
when it represents that which is spoken of, or performs the action of 
the verb ; when we say, 

The horse runs, Le cheval court, 

The horse does not fly, Le cheval ne vole pas, 

the noun horse is the subject, because, in the first sentence, we say, 
that it runs, and in the second, that it does not fly. 

It is to the subject that every thing refers in speech ; when we say, 

A man just and firm is not moved Un homme juste et ferme n'est ebranle 

either by the roaring of an irritated ni par les clameurs d'une populace 

multitude, or the threats of a proud irritee, ni par les menaces d'un fier 

tyrant ; if even the world was tyran ; quand meme le monde brise 

shaken to the centre, and reduced to s'ecroulerait, il en serait frappe, mais 

ruins, he would be struck but not non pas emu, 
disturbed by it, 

the adjectives just and firm modify the subject man, and the rest 
modifies a man just and firm. 

The substantive is used in the apostrophe, when it designates the 
thing or person to whom we speak ; as, 

Kings, be attentive. Rois, soyez attentifs. 

Earth, sea, and you, heavens, be sen- Terre, mer, et vous, cieux, soyez sen- 
sible to our claims. sibles a nos plaintes. 

The substantives, kings, earth, sea, heavens, are used in the form 
of an apostrophe. 

The substantive is an object, when it is under the control of another 
word ; in this case, it restrains the signification of that word. The 
substantive may be governed by another substantive, an adjective, a 
verb, or a preposition : 

The law of God. La hi de Dieu. 

Useful to man. Utile a Vhomme. 

To love one's neighbor. Aimer son prochain. 

At one's father's. Chez son pere. 

The word which governs is called governing; the word which is 
governed is called regimen or object. 

In French, a substantive cannot be the object of another substantive 
without the aid of a preposition, which is generally, of, de, but 
sometimes, to, a, for, pour, and others ; as, 

The difficulty of the enterprise. La difficulte de l'entreprise. 

The attention to one's business. L'attention d ses affaires. 

The taste for pleasure. Le gout pour le plaisir. 



72 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Of two substantives, one governing-, the other governed, the one 
governing generally comes first. 



The beauty of feelings. 
The violence of passions. 



La beaute des sentiments. 
La violence des passions. 



We have used the word generally, because sometimes the privilege 
of inversion changes that order. 

Sometimes substantives change their nature into that of an ad- 
jective ; in this phrase of Bossuet, 



Tout etait Dieu, excepte Dieu lui- 
meme, 



All was God, except God himself, 

God, in the first part, is an adjective, and a noun in the second 



OF NUMBER IN THE NOUNS WHICH ARE OBJECTS OF ANOTHER NOUN. 
152. Substantives immediately governed by another with the preposition 



The hand of woman. 
The act of a fool. 
A child's play. 
A horse's tail. 
A statue of marble. 

The hands of woman. 
The acts of a fool. 
A child's plays. 
Horses' tails. 
Statues of marble. 



Singulc 



Plural. 



line main de femme. 
Une action de fou. 
Un jeu d'enfant. 
Une queue de cheval. 
Une statue de marbre. 

Des mains de femme. 
Des actions de fou. 
Des jeux d'enfant. 
Des queues de cheval. 
Des statues de marbre. 



Here the substantives which follow the preposition modify the 
subject designated by the first one, which represents the principal 
idea; and the words, woman, fool, child, &c, used in a vague and 
indefinite sense, serve less to express the idea of the object which 
they represent, than to qualify the substantive with which they are 
united by the preposition of, de; in fact, a woman's voice is a feminine 
voice, the action of a fool is a foolish action, the play of a child is a 
childish play, &c. 

Rule. In all cases similar to the above, and where no peculiar 
reason requires the plural, the substantive employed as a regimen or 
object remains in the singular. 

Observation. Tn conformity with this rule we write, 

Stumps, Des troncs d'arbre, 



SUBSTANTIVE. 73 

with arbre in the singular ; but speaking of trees to be planted again, 
we say, 

Sets of trees, Des pieds d'arbres, 

because here the words pieds d'arbres are taken for the trees them- 
selves. 

153. However, it is customary, and the Academy approves of it, 
to write des pieds de girqflee, plants of gillyflower, des pieds de basilic, 
plants of basil, des pieds de marjolaine, plants of marjoram, because 
these plants, composed of several slips, do not present a distinct idea 
of individuality ; and, besides, we generally say, de la girqflee, some 
gillyflower, du basilic, some basil, &c. 

154. Rule. When the substantive, used as an object, implies 
necessarily the idea of plurality, it must be used in the plural ; as, 

A forest of oaks. Une foret de chenes. 

A couple of horses. Une couple de chevaux. 

A merchant of engravings. Un marchand de gravures. 

Observations. 

A merchant or some merchants of Un marchand ou des marchands de vin. 

wine. 
A merchant of rich wines and liquors. Un marchand de vins fins et de liqueurs. 

In the first example we write vin in the singular, because this word 
is taken indefinitely, and does not imply the idea of plurality ; but in 
the last, vins is written with an s, because the mind is compelled to 
think of several sorts of wines and liquors. 



OF CASES IN WHICH TWO NOUNS, UNITED BY THE PREPOSITION OF, 
EXPRESS THE IDEA OF A THING FORMED BY EXTRACTION OR COM- 
POSITION. 

Singular. 
A jelly of apples. Une gelee de pomme. 

Syrup of lemon. Du sirop de limon. 

Olive oil. De l'huile d'olive. 

Plural. 
Stewed pears, pigeons. Une compote de poires, de pigeons. 

Marmalade of apricots. Une marmelade d'abricots. 

A dish of chesnuts. Un assiette de marrons. 

155. Here the preposition and the noun which follows are no 
longer used only to modify the subject of the proposition, but they 
7 



74 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

show how it is constituted, or composed, if we may say so, and we 
call this last noun determinative. 

Rule. The determinative remains in the singular when it concurs 
with the constitution of the subject by extraction, as apple, lemon, 
olive, in the foregoing examples ; but it is employed in the plural if 
the formation of the subject takes place by composition. 

Let us explain this rule. There is extraction, when the article 
which is employed to compose the subject, has changed its nature in 
the compound which it has been used to produce ; thus, when we 
make jelly, syrup, oil, we employ only a part of the apples, lemons, 
and olives ; and neither of those preparations keep the form, nor the 
appearance, of those fruits ; in these cases we think but little of the 
individuality of either fruit, and their names must remain in the 
singular. When, on the other hand, the article used to form the 
subject of the proposition remains entire, or nearly so, there is no 
extraction, but composition, the idea of individuality becomes striking, 
recalls to the mind that of plurality for the whole, and the determi- 
native must accordingly take the plural ; it is the case with the words 
poires, pigeons, abricots, marrons, which remain entire in the 
composition of the subject, and may be counted one by one ; in the 
marmelade, the individuals are not so distinct, it is true, but the 
apricots have not entirely changed their nature, as in a jelly, 
syrup, &c. 



OF CASES IN WHICH TWO NOUNS BEING SEPARATED BY THE PREPO- 
SITION OF, THE FIRST EXPRESSES AN IDEA OF CAPACITY OR AG- 
GLOMERATION. 

Singular. 

A barrel of vinegar. Un barril de vinaigre 

A bushel of wheat. Un boisseau de bled. 

A bouquet of jasmine. Un bouquet de jasmin. 

Plural. 

A barrel of olives. Un barril d'olives. 

A bushel of beans. Un boisseau de haricots. 

A bouquet of roses. Un bouquet de roses. 

156. Rule. When the first substantive expresses an idea of 
capacity, or agglomeration, the second may be considered as being 
determinative, and always remains in the singular, if it specifies a 
thing which cannot be, or is not usually, counted ; in all other cases, 
it always takes the plural. The above examples leave no ambiguity 
about the application of this rule. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 75 

157. Observations. The rules which we have just given are not 
strictly applicable, and it is necessary to examine carefully how the 
determinative must be understood. In the locution, A juice of herbs, 
unjus d'herbes, the determinative hcrbes is plural, although the juice 
is made by extraction, and the herbs have entirely changed their 
nature ; we are induced to do it, not only because several herbs enter 
into its formation, but because those herbs are of a different nature. 

On the other hand, we write, 

A porridge of beans, Une puree de haricots, 

A cullis of craw-fish, Un coulis d'ecreirisses, 

A pot of preserves, Un pot de confitures, 

because those words, beans, craw-fish, and preserves, in French, are 
most generally used in the plural ; for we do not say, 

I love the bean, the craw-fish, the pre- J'aime le haricot, Vecrevisse, la confiture, 
serve, 

but, 

Les haricots, les ecrevisses, Ies confitures. 

But we write, 

A porridge of potatoes, Un puree de pomme de terre. 

because we say, 

The potatoe is good, La pomme de terre est bonne. 

When a qualificative is joined to the determinative, it restricts and 
particularizes its meaning, and consequently disposes it to take the 
plural ; thus, although we think it should be written, 

I prefer to draw heads of women rather J'aime mieux dessiner des teles de 
than of men, femme que des tetes d'homme, 

we should employ the plural in two of the following sentences : 

Cannibals used to cut off the heads of Les cannibales coupaient les tetes 
men killed in battle- d , hom?nes tues sur le champ de bat- 

aille. 
There are two kinds of rights in law. II y a deux especes de droit. 
There are several breeds of horses. II y a plusieurs especes de chevaux. 

In the second example, the singular is used, because we wish to 
say . 

Law is divided into two classes : Le droit se divise en deux classes : 
public law, and private law. le droit public, et le droit priv6. 



76 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

In the last example, the plural is used, because we wish to say : 

There are horses of several breeds. 11 y a des chevaux de differentes especes. 

By taking the trouble to analyze the sentences which appear 
doubtful to the mind, it is easy to avoid committing any faults. 



OF NOUNS USED WITH THE PREPOSITION OF, DE, BUT NOT PRECEDED 
IMMEDIATELY BY ANOTHER NOUN. 

158. Of, preceded by an adjective or a past participle ; as, 

Singular. 
A child full of good disposition. Un enfant plein de bonne volonte. 

A prince thirsting for fame. Un prince altere de renommee. 

A painter full of talent. Un peintre rempli de talent. 

Plural. 

A man full of vices. Un homme plein de defauts. 

An author craving applause. Un auteur insatiable de louanges. 

A young lady full of talents. Une jeune personne remplie de talents. 

The least reflection is sufficient to determine, in all cases similar to 
these, whether the singular or plural must be used. Bonne volonte 
is in the singular, because we do not say, Des bonnes volontes. 
Defauts is in the plural, because we would not say, A man full of 
vices, if he had only one vice. 

Gloire, taken in a general sense, is never used in the plural ; but it 
should be, if we had to express, 

He is craving for all sorts of glory, II est affame de tous les genres de gloires ; 

because here glory is particularized, and we understand there are 
several sorts of it. 

Louanges, praises, cannot possibly be in the singular, because one 
of them alone would not be enough for a craving man. 

Talent, in the painter's case, is singular, because we mean but one 
talent of an eminent order ; but in the other instance, we intend to 
say that the young lady possesses all the talents which are acquired 
by a complete education. 



SUBSTANTIVE. 77 

OF SUBSTANTIVES PRECEDED, AS DETERMINATIVE, BY ANY PREPO- 
SITION BUT OF, DE. 

159. Preposition d ; as, 

Singular. 
To travel on foot. Voyager a pied. 

A safe with a secret lock. Un coffre d secret. 

Plural. 
To jump with the feet close. Sauter d pieds joints. 

Horned cattle. Des betes d comes. 

To go on foot, to be on foot, a footman, Aller d pied, etre sur pied, valet de pied, 

are expressions which usage has consecrated in the singular, because 
the mode in which the word foot is used implies only a modification 
of the words aller, etre, valet, without the mind being troubled with 
the idea of the number of feet ; but in this phrase, Sauter tt pieds 
joints, the word joints, awaking naturally the idea of two feet, 
requires the plural. 

Secret is in the singular, because we think only of a lock which is 
a secret one; but comes is in the plural, because we mean animals 
that always have two horns. 

160. Preposition en, in; as, 

Singular. 
Constant in love. Constant en amour. 

To fly from flower to flower. Voler defleur enfleur. 

I made a marmalade of them. Je les ai mis en marmelade. 

A house covered with slate. Une maison couverte en ardoise. 

Plural. 
Fertile in expedients. Fertile en expedients. 

To lie in. Etre en couches. 

They are cut to pieces. lis sont tailles en pieces. 

A gown trimmed with pearls. Une robe garnie enperles. 

Amour, in the plural, would be nonsense applied to constant. 

Fertile conveys the idea of more than one expedient, or else the 
sentence would have no sense. 

It is easily perceived when the plural must be used after a certain 
class of adjectives ; as, full, filled, craving, rich, abounding, and 
others similar to them. Defleur enfleur signifies, from one flower to 
another; it is clear that a fly, or butterfly, cannot leave two flowers at 
once. 

Les couches, of a woman, is an idiomatical expression in our 
language, referring to the time when she lies in ; but, if meaning the 



78 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

act of giving birth to a child, the singular may be used ; so we may 



A happy delivery. Une heureuse couche. 

She died after her delivery. Elle est morte d'une suite de couche, 

that is to say, on account of her delivery. 

Marmelade is in the singular, because there is but one preparation 
so called. 

Pieces is in the plural, because they have been cut into a great 
number of pieces. 

Ardoise is in the singular, because the slates which cover the house 
are taken as a whole, the mind not being occupied with the idea of 
plurality in regard to them 

Perles is in the plural, because the mind divides them, counts 
theirl, if we may say so, and is pleased by exaggerating their 
number. 

161. The preposition par, hy ; as, 

Singular. 
I gave him my property by deed. Je lui donnai mon bien par contract. 

Plural. 
They divided themselves into troops II se divis^rent par troupes. 

There is but one contract, and there are several troops. 

162. The preposition pour, for; as, 

Peter, shoemaker for men only. Pierre, cordonnier pour homme. 

Homme is used in the singular, because its meaning is vague and 
indefinite, and stands here as a mere qualification. 

163. The preposition sans, without ; as, 

Singular. 
I am without bread or money. Je suis sans pain et sans argent. 

Plural. 
He is without shoes. II est sans soldiers. 

The words pain and argent have no plural in this acceptation ; 
besides, the preposition sans, meaning a complete exclusion, must 
generally be followed by the singular, unless we are compelled to 
think of several objects, as is the case in the other example ; (a man 
always wears two shoes.) 



SUBSTANTIVE. 79 

164. The preposition sur, upon, on; as, 

Singular. 
To receive letter after letter. Recevoir lettre sur lettre. 

Plural. 
To begin anew. Recommencer sur de nouveaux frais. 

Lettre sur lettre, means, a letter after another letter ; it is an ex- 
pression similar to that of de fleur en fleur, from flower to flower. 
Freds has no singular ; that is the reason why we write, 

To travel at a great expense. Voyager a grands frais 



REMARKS ON THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS. 

165. We have already said enough on this subject to enable the 
reader to ascertain with accuracy in what cases he must use the plural 
or the singular in locutions of this kind ; it is easily perceived that 
the singular is more generally employed than the other number, which 
must be rejected whenever the sense of the sentence does not convey 
the idea of plurality in a clear and distinct manner. But, in the mean 
time, particular care must be taken to study the real meaning of the 
sentence, as being the only sure guide in the case. 

There are, however, many instances, where either number may be 
employed indifferently. Let us try to explain still more explicitly 
what characterizes each number. 

General Rule. 

166. If we speak of a species or of a kind taken generally, the 
singular must be used. 

If the mind refers more particularly to individuals, the plural must 
be used. 
If we say, 

During lent, Catholics live wholly upon Les Catholiques, pendant le careme, ne 
fish, se nourissent que de poisson, 

we use the singular for poisson, because we think only of the kind of 
food, without any reference to the number of fish. 
But if we say, 

Lobsters and crabs live only on fish, Les homards et les crabes ne vivent 

que de poissons, 

we represent to ourselves lobsters and crabs living upon a number of 



80 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

fishes ; the idea dwells upon the individuals of the fish tribe, and 
accordingly the plural is used. 

167. In fine, there are cases in which the plural seems to give 
more force to the expression ; as, for instance, if we say, as a matter 
of fact only : 

Catacombs are filled with skulls and Les catacombs sont remplies de tetes 
dead bones. et d'os de mort. 

But, if we wish to move an audience, we should say, 

Think of the horrid picture which Figurez-vous l'affreux tableau qui 
strikes our eyes ; a valley covered frappe nos regards ; une vallee 
with skulls and dead bones. jonc!i< e de tetes et d'os de morts. 

The mind refers, in the first instance, to bones as those of a corpse ; 
while, in the other, it is struck by the horror of so many persons 
killed and having their bones left in the valley. 

168. The Dictionary of the Academy should not be consulted for 
the explanation of this difficulty of our language ; because, being the 
result of the cooperation of many, it too often contains rules implying 
contradiction to one another. It is by common sense and reasoning, 
according to the rules we have laid down, that the student must be 
guided. We will add some few more illustrations, so as to leave as 
little doubt as possible on the subject. 

Singular. 
Fancies of a woman. Des caprices defemme. 

Heaps of grass. Des tas d'herbe. 

To fight with the fist. Se battre a coups de poing. 

Vessels loaded with linen. Des vaisseaux charges de toile. 

Some pots of basil, of butter. Des pots de basilic, de beurre. 

A merchant of feathers. Un marchand de plume. 

Merchants of straw, hay, cider. Des marchands de paille, de foin, de 

cidre. 
A merchant of music. Un marchand de musique. 

Merchants of wine, butter, fish, cod- Des marchands de vin, de beurre, de 
fish, orange-flower. poisson, de morue, de fleur d'oranger. 

Plural. 

Female boarding-house. Une pension de femmes. 

A heap of medicinal herbs. Un tas d'herbes medicinales. 

To scratch with the nails. Se battre a coups d'ongles. 

Vessels loaded with codfish. Des vaisseaux charges de morues. 

A pot of flowers, of pinks. Un pot defleurs, d' 'millets. 

A merchant of pens. Un marchand de plumes. 

A merchant of cloths from Elbeuf, Un marchand de drops d'Elbeuf, de 

Louviers, of white linen, of coarse Louviers, de toiles blanches, de toiles 

linen. communes. 

A merchant of engravings. Un marchand d'estampes. 

A merchant of rich wines, salt butter, Un marchand de vins fins, de beurres 

herrings, eels, carps, lobsters, flowers. sales, de harengs, d'anguilles, de 

carpes, de homards, defleurs. 



SUBSTANTIVE. Si 

In all the above examples of the singular, the second substantives 
are used in a general and indefinite sense, as mere qualificatives ; 
whereas, in the plural, these same words are taken in a sense of 
individuality. 

For instance, des caprices de femme, are caprices which arc attrib- 
uted to women in general ; but, une pension de femmes is composed 
of individuals, and the word femmes conveys the idea of plurality. 

Des marchands de plume are men who sell quantities of feathers to 
make beds ; we cannot have the idea of counting these feathers ; but 
un marchand de plumes is a man who sells pens to write with, and at 
once we see that we may buy one, two, or twenty of them ; the sense 
is individual, definite. 

Merchants of straw, hay, cider, are men who do not sell singly one, 
two straws, &c, but who sell, as a whole, straw, hay, &c, then the 
sense is indefinite, and does not admit of plurality ; but a merchant 
of trees, apricots, grapes, &c, always sells those articles by the piece, 
or, on account of their number, sells them by the quantity ; then the 
sense is individual ; you may buy an apricot, two trees, &c. We 
could not, without useless repetition, continue the analysis of the 
other examples, which has been previously given. 

We will terminate this review by mentioning once more, that in 
cases similar to those already noticed, the mind must decide the 
question, by giving to sentences their proper signification. 



QUESTIONS ABOUT THE NOUN. 

93. What is the noun, and Avhat difference is there between a common noun 
and a proper noun % 

94, 95. What are the number and the gender in nouns 1 

96. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in e, i, u, or with a 
consonant 1 

97. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending with a mute e ? 

98. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in en, on, et ? 

99. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in eur ? 

100. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in x ? 

101. Are there not some nouns which are either feminine or masculine 
according to their number and signification 1 

102. In which case is aigle masculine or feminine "? 

103. Of what gender is amour in the singular and plural 1 

104. Of what gender is automne ? 

105. When is the word couple masculine or feminine 1 

106. 107, 108. Of what gender are the nouns, delice, enfant, and exemple ? 
110. In what case is the word gens masculine or feminine 1 

114. Of what gender is the noun orge ? 

115. Is the noun orgue of the same gender in the singular and plural 1 



82 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

116. In what case is p&que spelled with or without an s ? of what gender 
is if? 

117, 118, 119. In what case are parallele, pendule and periode masculine or 
feminine 1 

120. What is the gender of the word personne ? 

121. What is the gender of the expressions quelque chose, autre chose ? 

122. 123, 124. Of what gender are the nouns reglisse,sentinelle and trompette? 
{Remark. Ask the same questions about the nouns contained in the list, 125.) 

127. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in s, x, z ? 

128. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in au, eau, eu, ceu, ieu, ou ? 

129. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in al, ail ? 

130. Is there anything particular in the formation of the plural in the 
nouns a'ieul, del and ceil ? 

131. How is the plural formed in nouns which do not belong to the preceding 
terminations 1 

132. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in ent and ant ? 

132, 133. What is the peculiarity in the formation of the plural in the words 
gent and tout ? 

134. Do names of metals, used in their abstract meaning, take the plural % 

135. Do names used to designate vices and virtues take the plural % 

136. Do verbs used in the infinitive mood as nouns take the plural 1 

137. Do adjectives used as nouns in their abstract meaning take the plural 1 

139. Do nouns borrowed from foreign languages take the plural 1 (Recite 
those which do take it.) 

140. Do proper nouns, used as such, take the plural 1 

141. Do proper nouns designating two or more individuals of the same 
family take the plural % 

142. When a proper noun has become a common noun, does it take the 
plural 1 

138. 143. Are there not common nouns which have no plural at all, and others 
which have no singular % (Name some of them.) 

144. Have the following words, bonte, beaute, charite, bonheur, and those of 
the same nature, the same signification in either number 1 

145. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of a noun and 
an adjective 1 

146. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of two nouns 1 

147. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of two nouns, 
separated by a preposition % 

148. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of a verb, a 
preposition, or an adverb, and a noun 1 

149. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of two in- 
declinable words % 

150. What are the functions of nouns in language 1 

150. Can a noun be the object of another noun without the assistance of a 
preposition 1 

150. Are not nouns used sometimes as adjectives 1 

151, 152, 153. If two nouns are separated by the preposition de, when 
does the second take the sign of the plural % (Mention the general principle.) 

154. When two nouns separated by of represent the idea of a thing formed 
by extraction or composition, does the second take the plural 1 

155, 156. If the first of two nouns separated by a preposition expresses an 
idea of capacity or agglomeration, when does the second take the sign of the 
plural. 

157. If a noun preceded by of is not immediately preceded by another 
noun, when does that noun take the sign of the plural 1 

158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163. Apply the same questions to nouns preceded 
by any other preposition, such as d, to, en, in, par, by, pour, for, sans, without, 
eur, on, upon, &c. 



ADJECTIVE. 83 

165. When the second noun expresses a species or kind, in what number 
Bhould it be used 1 

166. In order to give more force to the expression, is not the second noun 
sometimes used in the plural 1 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 



169. The adjective is a word which is joined to a noun to qualify 
or modify it. — {Academy.) 

Thus the use of the adjective in speech, always supposes the 
presence of a substantive. 

When I say, A wise man, un homme sage, homme is a substantive, 
which, without the word sage, applies to any individual of the male 
race of man ; but as soon as this word sage is added to it, the idea 
represented by the two words, homme sage, does not designate any 
man, but one among them who has the quality of being wise; thus 
icise qualifies and modifies the substantive man, and accordingly is an 
adjective. 

We have already stated that nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, 
and adjectives as nouns. But it is proper to notice here, that this 
last transformation never takes place when we speak of living beings ; 
for being always, in this case, of the same gender as the noun they 
represent, they always suppose the apposition of this noun to them ; 
so that when employed, the sentence has the character of an ellipsis ; 
thus, when we say, for the Almighty, L'Eternel, Le Tout-puissant, 
the noun God is understood, and, God being masculine, the adjective 
can only be used in that gender. 

The wise (man,) Le sage. 

The select (men,) Les elus. 

Learned men, Les savants. 

A prude (woman,) Une prude. 

In these examples, the word man, homme, is understood in the first, 
hommes in the second and third, and femme in the last. 

Sometimes, it is true, these adjectives in similar cases are accom- 
panied by another adjective, which seems to modify them as it would 
a noun ; but if we analyze those expressions we shall discover that 
these qualificative adjectives act only as an adverb should, and, in 
fact, take the place of one ; 



84 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

A true wise (man,) Un vrai sage, 

means a man truly wise, un homme vraiment sage. 

A false devotee, Une fausse devote, 

means, a woman falsely religious, une femme faussement devote. 

Even when the adjective does not refer to a living being, if it 
designates an attribute, belonging to a class of things which may be 
expressed by a noun, it should be always considered as an adjective ; 
thus, 

The acids of the stomach, Les acides de l'estomac, 

The thick part of the blade, Le fort de l'epee, 

The purgatives, Les pwcgatifs, 

A perpendicular, Une perpendiculaire, 

signify, 

Les (sues) acides de l'estomac. 
Le (endroit) fort de l'epee. 
Les (remedes) purgatifs. 
Une (ligne) perpendiculaire. 

The adjective is, then, only taken as a noun when it expresses an 
idea which may, positively and actually, be applied to things of 
different species ; as in the following, 

What is true persuades. Le vrai persuade. 

What is honest must be preferred to L'honnete doit etre prefere a Vagreable 
what is agreeable and useful. et a Vutile. 

The first proposition is true when speaking of a narrative, a system, 
an argument, a gesture, a sadness, a desire, &c, but it does not 
designate any of these ideas in particular, and represents what is 
spoken of only as a thing, the nature of which is truth. 

The same construction may be applied in the second sentence when 
the subject spoken of is what is honest, agreeable and useful. 



VARIATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 



170. The nature of adjectives being, as we have already stated, 
to express the qualities of nouns, by identifying themselves with 
them, .they must both have the same characteristics, and always be 
of the same number and gender. 



ADJECTIVE. 85 

Besides, the adjective may qualify the noun to which it is joined in 
a manner more or less extended ; this is what is called by gram- 
marians degrees of signification in the adjectives. 

We have, then, three distinct parts to consider in adjectives ; the 
gender, the number, the degrees of signification. 



OF THE GENDER IN THE ADJECTIVES. 
FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN ADJECTIVES ENDING WITH A MUTE E. 

171. All adjectives have for their termination in the masculine either 
an e mute, another vowel, or a consonant 

All adjectives in the feminine are ended with an e mute. 

Thus, those which end with an e mute in the masculine, do not 
change their termination in the feminine ; such are the following : 

Ridiculous, Ridicule. 



A ridiculous man, 
A ridiculous woman, 




Un homme ridicule. 
Une femme ridicule. 


Exceptions : 






Traitor, 

Devilish, 

Master, 


traitre, 
diable, 
maitre, 


traitresse. 
diablesse. 
maitresse. 



OF ADJECTIVES ENDING WITH A VOWEL WHICH IS NOT A MUTE E. 

172. Adjectives which in the masculine end with any other 

vowel than an e mute, make their feminine by the addition of an e 

mute to the masculine termination. 

Enchante, enchantee. poYi,polie. bleu, bleue. 

Enchanted. polished. blue. 

There is but one exception to this rule, which is, 

Favorite, favori, favorite. 

OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN AN, TEN, ON. 

173. Adjectives ending in the masculine in an, ten, on, besides the 
addition of an e mute, double their last consonant in the feminine ; as, 

Christian, Chretien, Chretienne. 

Peasant, paysan, paysanne. 

Good, bon, bonrae. 

The Academy, in stating this rule, marks as exceptions : 

English, Anglican, Anglicane. 

.Mahometan, Mahometan, Mahometans 

8 



grand, 
dur, 


grande. 
dure. 


gris, 
savant, 
froid, 
fatal, 


grise. 
savante. 
froide. 
fatale. 



OO FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Persian, Persan, Persane. 

Turkish government, Porte-Ottomane. 

Sultan, Sultan, Sultane, &c. 

Benign, benin, makes benigne. 

Cunning, malin, " maligne. 

OF ADJECTIVES ENDING WITH A CONSONANT WHICH IS NEITHER M OR N. 

174. Adjectives ending in the masculine with any other consonant 
than m or n, make their feminine by the addition of an e mute to their 
last consonant ; as, 

Great, 

Hard, 

Gray, 

Learned, 

Cold, 

Fatal, 

But this rule has an immense number of exceptions. We will 
explain them one after another. 

OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN C AND D. 

175. Adjectives ending with the letter c make their feminine in 
two ways ; some add he to the masculine ; as, 

Frank, franc, francAe. 

White, blanc, blancAe. 

Dry, sec, sec/ie. 

Others make their feminine by changing c into que; as, 

Public, public, puhWque. 

Turk, turc, turque. 

Decayed, caduc, caduque. 

The adjective Greek, grec, makes its feminine by keeping the c and 
adding que; grecque. 

Raw, crud, makes crue. 

OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN F . 

176. Adjectives ending with f in the masculine, make their 
feminine by changing f into ve ; as, 



Brief, 


bref, 


bre^e. 


Quick, 


vif, 


vive. 


New, 


neuf, 


neu^e. 


Captive, 


captif, 


captive, &c. 



OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN G. 

177. Adjectives ending in g, make their plural by adding ue to the 
masculine ; as, 

Long, long. longtte. 



ADJECTIVE. 87 

OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN EL, EIL, OL, UL, AS, OS, OT. 

178. Adjectives ending in el, eil, as, 61, ul, os, ot, make their 
feminine by doubling the last consonant and adding an e mute. 



Void, 


mil, 


nul/e. 


Natural, 


naturel, 


naturel/e. 


Rosy, 


vermeil, 


vermeilZe. 


Fat, 


gras, 


grusse. 


Big, 


gros, 


grosse. 


Neat, 


net, 


nette. 


Stupid, 


sot, 


sotte. 



The Academy says that the following adjectives make their 
feminine thus : 



Unpolished, 


mat, 


mate. 


Complete, 


complet, 


complete, &c 


Spaniard, 


espagnol, 


espagnole. 


Pious, 


devot, 


devote. 


Suspicious, 


suspect, 


suspected &c 


Fresh, 


frais, 


fraiche. 


Close, 


ras, 


rase. 


Dissolved, 


dissous, 


dissoute. 


Absolved, 


absous, 


absoute. 



Twin, jumeau, jumelle. 

These exceptions are certainly of a strange nature ; but habit and 
the Academy require them ; they must then be admitted. 

OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN EVR, TEUR, ERIEUR. 

179. Adjectives ending in eur have several modes of termination 
for the feminine. Those in eur derived from a present participle by 
changing ant into eur, make their feminine by changing eur into euse; 



Dancer, 


danseur, 


danseuse. 


Deceiver, 
Singer, 


trompeur, 
chanteur, 


trompeuse. 
chanteuse, &c 



Those ending in teur, unless they are derived from a present par- 
ticiple, as in the preceding examples, change eur into trice ; as, 



Accuser, 


accusateur, 


accusatn'ce. 


Conductor, 


conslucteur, 


conductrzce. 


Admirer, 


admirateur, 


admiratn'ce. 


Creator, 


createur, 


creatn'ce, &c. 



Exception. The following adjectives, although derived from present 
participles, make their plural in trice; as, 

Debtor, debiteur, debitn'ce. 

Executor, executeur, executn'ce. 



88 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Inspector, 
Inventor, 
Prosecutor, 
Enchanteur, 



mspecteur, 
inventeur, 
persecuteur, 
enchanteur, 



inspectnce. 
inventnce. 
persecutn'ce. 
enchanteresse. 



Those ending in erieur make their feminine by adding an e mute to 
this termination ; as, 



Exterior, 
Superior, 
Anterior, 



exterieur, 
superieur, 



exterieure. 
superieure. 



We must add to this class the following 



Of age, 
Minor, 
Better, 



majeur, 
mineur, 
meilleur, 



majeure, 
mineure. 
meilleure. 



There is a great number of nouns with this termination that must 
not be mistaken for adjectives, and make their feminine terminations 
in different manners ; they are easily distinguished from adjectives by 
placing the word man, or woman, before them, and seeing if, thus 
accompanied, they are used in the language. A good dictionary is 
the best rule for such cases. 

There are also some adjectives terminating in eur, which have no 
feminine termination, and are used for either gender ; such as, 



(Lover of arts,) 


amateur, 


amateur. 


Author, 


auteur, 


auteur. 


Conqueror, 


vainqueur, 


vainqueur, &c. 



OP ADJECTIVES ENDING IN X. 

180. Adjectives ending in x, change this letter into se, in the 
feminine ; as, 



Courageous, 

Generous, 

Happy, 



Exceptions 



Reddish, 
False, 
Sweet, 
Prefixed, 



courageux, 

genereux, 

heureux, 



roux, 
faux, 
doux, 
prefix, 



courageuse. 
genereuse. 
heureuse, &c. 



rousse. 
fausse. 
douce, 
prefixe. 



OF ADJECTIVES HAVING TWO TERMINATIONS IN THE MASCULINE, ACCORDING 
AS THEY ARE PLACED BEFORE A VOWEL OR A CONSONANT. 

181. Five adjectives are entirely defective in their feminine 
termination, and, besides, change their masculine according to the 



ADJECTIVE. 



letter which begins the next word, whether it is a consonant or a 
vowel ; as, 



Foolish, 

Old, 

Beautiful, 

JN'ew, 

Soft, 



C before a consonant, or h aspirated, fou, 

\ " vowel, or h route, fol, 

C " consonant, or h aspirated, vieux, 

\ " vowel, or h mute, vieil, 

C " consonant, or h aspirated, beau, 

I " vowel, or h mute, bel, 

C " consonant, or h aspirated, nouveau, 

( " vowel, or h mute, nouvel, 

C " consonant, or h aspirated, raou, 

l " vowel, or h mute, mol, 



I folle. 
i vieille. 
£ belle. 
( nouvelle. 
( molle. 



OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE USED ONLY IN THE MASCULINE OR IN THE 
FEMININE. 

182. Some adjectives have no feminine ; as, 



Active, 

Foppish, 

Pale, 

Some have no masculine ; as, 

Mellow, 



dispos. 
fat. 
paillet, &c. 



blette, &c. 



NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF NU3IBER. 

Numbers are divided into five classes ; as, 



1st. Cardinal. 
2d. Ordinal. 
3d. Collective. 




4th 
5th 


. Distributive. 
. Proportional. 




3. A TABLE OF CARDINAL, ORDINAL, 


AND COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. 


Cardinal Numbers. 


Ordinal Numbers. 


Collective Nouns 


of Number. 


1 un, m. une,/ 

2 deux 

3 trois 


premier 

deux-ieme, second 
trois-ieme 


first 
2d 
3d 


unite unit 
couple, paire couple 
trio trio 


4 quatre 

5 cinq 

6 six 

7 sept 

8 huit 


quatr-ieme 

cinq-uieme 

six-ieme 

sept-ieme 
huit-ieme 




4th 

5th 

6th 

7th 
8th 


deux-couple.^™^" 

s demi-douz- $ half a 
aine ( dozen 

huitaine eight 


9 neuf 


neu-vieme 




9th 


neuvaine 


\ ninedayg 
( of praver 


10 dix 


dix-ieme 




10th 


dixaine 


\ half a 
( score 

a dozen. 


11 onze 

12 douze 

13 treize 

14 quatorze 


onz ieme 
douz-ieme 
treiz-ieine 
quatorz-ieme 




11th 
12th 
13th 

14th 


douzaine 


15 quinze 


quinz-ieme 




15th 


quinzaine 


$ fortnight 
( fifteen 



90 



FIIENCH GRAMMAR. 



16 seize 

17 dix-sept 

18 dix-huit 

19 dix-neuf 

20 vingt 

21 vingt-et-un 

22 vingt-deux 

30 trente 

31 trente-et-un, &c. 

40 quarante 

41 quarante-et-un, &c. 

50 cinquante 

51 cinquante-et-un, &c 

52 cinquante-deux 

60 soixante 

61 soixante-et-un, &c. 

70 soixante-dix 

71 soixante-et-onze 

72 soixante-douze, &C. 

80 quatre-vingts 

81 quatre-vingt-un 

90 quatre-vingt-dix 

91 quatre-vingt-onze,&c 

100 cent 

101 cent-un, &c. 
200 deux-cents 



seiz-teme 

dix-sept- i.£me 
dix-huit-ieme 



dix-neu-vi^me 
vingt-ieme 
vingl-et-uni£me 
vingt-deuzieme 

trentieme 

trente-et-unieme 

quaranti&ne 

quarante-et-unieme 

cinquantieme 

cinquante-et-uni£me 
cinquante-deuxieme, 

soixanti£me 



16th 
17th 
18th 
19th 
20th 
21st 
22d 

30th trentaine 



vingtame 



31st 
40th 
41st 

50th 

51st 
52d 

60th 



a score 
& a half. 



quarantaine 2 scores 

A . (2 scores 
cinquantame \ &ahalf 



soixantaine 



three 



soixante-et-unieme 61st 

soixante-dixieme 70th 

Boixante-et-onzieme 71st 

soixante-douzieme 72d 

80th 



quatre-vingtieme 

quatre-vingt-imieme 81st 
quatre-vingt-dixieme 90th 
.quatre-vingt-onzieme 91st 
centieme 100th centaine 

cent-unieme, &c. 101st 
deux-centi£me, &c. 200th 



quatre-vingt- $ four 
aine / scores 



5 scores 



1,000 mille 

2,000 deux-mille, &c. 

10,000 dix mille, 
1,000,000 un million 
1,000,000,000 un billion 



millieme 



deux-millieme 2,000th deux-milliers 



deux-centaines lOscorea 
1 thou- 
sand 
two 



1,000th un-millier 



dix-milli^tne 
millionieme 
billionieme 



10,000th 
millionth 
billionth 



une-myriade 
1 million 
1 billion 



thousand 
a myriad 
1 million 
1 billion 



The formation of the ordinal adjective from the cardinal is so 
simple, that it requires no further explanation. 

OF NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES USED IN SPEAKING OF THE DAYS OF THE MONTH. 

184. When, in French, we speak of the days of the month, instead 
of using the ordinal number, as is done in English, we employ the 
cardinal ; as, 

The eighth of April. Le huit Avril, or d'Avril. 

The 26th of the next month. Le vingt-six du mois prochain. 

But, however, when we speak of the first day of the month, we 
keep the ordinal number as in the English ; as, 



5 Le premier Janvier. 
*Le 



^' \ Le premier de Janvier, 

This exception does not extend any further ; to say, 



The second day of the month, Le second du mois, 
is not correct. 



ADJECTIVE. 91 

OP THE NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE ONZE {ELEVEN.) 

185. Although the number onze (eleven) begins with a vowel, the 
article singular, le, la, does not make an elision before it, and les is 
pronounced as if the word onze began with an h aspirated ; as, 

The eleventh of March. Le onze de Mars. 

The eleven apples were good. Les (h) onze porames etaient bonnes. 

OF THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND NUMBERS. 

186. In the formation of some of the compound numbers, the word 

one is placed between the first and the last part ; as in, 

Twenty-one, vingt-et-un. 

Thirty-one, trente-et-un. 

Forty-one, quarante-et-un. 

Fifty-one, cinquante-et-un. 

Sixty-one, soixante-et-un. 

Seventy-one, soixante-et-onze. 

This rule does not extend to any other number, and it would be 
wrong to say, vingt-et-deux, trente-et-quatre, &c. This mode of 
counting in English, one and twenty, six and thirty, &c, is not used 
in French. 

OF THE NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE ONE, UN, WITH THE WORDS HUNDRED AND 
THOUSAND. 

187. One, or a, placed before the words hundred and thousand, in 
English, are suppressed in French ; thus, one hundred, one thousand, 
are expressed by cent, mille. 

OF XCMERICAL ADJECTIVES USED IN POETRY, MUSIC, GAMES, &c. 

188. There are, besides the numerical adjectives already mentioned 
above, many others used in poetry, music, games, &c. ; as, 



Distich, 




distique. 


Tiercet, 




tercet. 


Quatrain, &c. 




quatrain. 


Solo, 




solo. 


Duet, 




duo. 


Music in three parts, 




trio. 


Quartet, &c. 




quatuor, &c. 


Two number ones, (playing 


with dice,) 


beset. 


Two number sixes, " 


" 


sonnet, &c. 



Un millier is very often employed for one thousand weight. Quintal 
is only used in the sense of one hundred weight. 

OF DISTRIBUTIVE AND PROPORTIONAL NUMBERS. 

189. The Distributive Numbers are those expressing the different 
parts of a whole ; as, 

The half, la moitie. 

The third, le tiers. 



92 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The fourth, le quart. 

The fifth, le cinquieme, &c. 

The Proportional Numbers denote the progressive increase of 
things ; as, 

The double, le double. 

The treble, le triple. 

A hundred fold, le centuple, &c. 



OF NUMBER IN ADJECTIVES. 

190. Adjectives agreeing in number, as well as in gender, with the 
nouns which they qualify, it becomes necessary now to examine what 
alterations they suffer in their termination when joined to a noun in 
the plural. 

General Rule. Adjectives, whatever may be their termination, 
form their plural by the addition of an s to the feminine and 
masculine ; as, 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Good. Bon, bons. Bonne, bonnes. 

This rule has no exceptions for the feminine termination ; as to the 
other, there are two cases in which this rule is not observed. 

1st. Adjectives ending in s or x in the singular, do not change 
in the plural ; as, 

Big, gros, gros. 

Hideous, hideux, hideux. 

2d. Adjectives ending in au and al make their plural by changing 
this termination into aux; as, 

Beautiful, beau, beaux. 

General, general, generaux. 

All cardinal numbers indicate the plural, except one, un; for it 
would be absurd if a word, which in all cases denotes a plurality, 
should be followed by a singular noun: thus, two, deux; ten, dix; 
twenty, vingt, &c, are always in the plural ; as, 

Two men, deux hommes. 

Ten years, dix ans. 

Twenty days, vingt joure, &c. 



ADJECTIVE. yj 

OF THE ADJECTIVES VINGT AND CENT. 

191. The adjective quatre-vingts takes the plural termination in the 
word twenty, provided it is not followed by another number ; as, 

Eighty men, quatre-vingts hommes. 

Eighty-two men, quatre-vingt-deux hommes. 

The adjective hundred takes the plural in the same cases ; as, 

Two hundred days, deux cents jours. 

Two hundred and one days, deux cent un jours, &c. 

But these two adjectives do not take the plural when they are used 
instead of the ordinal adjectives, centieme and millieme; as, 

Charlemagne died in the year 800, Charlemagne mourut en l'an huit cent. 

This great calamity happened in the Ce grand malheur arriva en l'an cinq 
year 580. cent quatre-vingt. 

OF THE NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES MILLE AND MIL, ONE THOUSAND. 

192. The adjective thousand, mitte, never takes the plural; as, 

Ten thousand men, dix mille hommes. 

One thousand men, mille hommes. 

The word thousand employed in dates is written mil, and means 
only ten hundred ; as, 

In 1830, en mil huit cent trente. 

Although this example is correct, it is more elegant to say for, 

In eighteen hundred and thirty, en dix-huit cent trente. 

The word mille, used as a noun, and meaning a mile, follows the 
rule of nouns and takes the plural ; as, 

A hundred miles, cent milles. 

Remark. It is to be remarked that in French the conjunction and, 
et, is never used in the formation of adjectives of number. We do not 
say, for two hundred and fifty, deux cent et cinquante, but deux cent 
cinquante; the reason for this rule is, that a numerical adjective, 
whatever may be the number of words of which it is composed, is 
but one qualificative, which does not admit therefore that and, et, which 
separates the adjective into parts, should convey the idea of several. 

The fact of et being used in the adjectives vingt-et-un, trentre-et-un, 
&c, is not a derogation to this rule, because in these cases et is only 
used for the sake of euphony, and is dropped as soon as it ceases 



94 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

being necessary to please the ear; thus we say, Quatrevingt-un, 
cent-un, &c. 

REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IN SEVERAL ADJECTIVES. 

193. The adjective, penitentiel, makes its plural, penitentiaux ; 

Penitential psalms, Les psaumes penitentiaux. 

Universal, universel, makes its plural universels, when employed as an 
adjective, but taken as a noun used in philosophical discussions, it is 
written universaux, {Academy, 1835) ; 

La these des universaux a fait dans les The thesis on universals has been in 
siecles passes un grand sujet de dis- past ages a great cause of dispute 
pute parmi les ecoles. among the schools. 

Adjectives ending in ant, ent, follow the general rule, keeping the 
t and adding an 5 in their plural : 

Caressing, caressant, caressants. 

Contented, content, contents. 

But when using the qualificatives in ant, we must ascertain if they 
are really qualificatives or present participles, for in this last case they 
neither take the plural nor feminine : 

Ces deux femmes, craignant "de le These two women, fearing to cause 
chagriner, l'ont perdu des sa jeun- him pain, have spoilt him from his 
esse. youth. 

The adjective, all, tout, is an exception to the preceding rule, 
because it drops the t in the plural : 

All men are equal. Tous les hommes sont egaux. 

The adjectives ending in the singular masculine in al are divided, 
with regard to the formation of their plural, into three categories. 

Most of them change al into aux. 

Some only add an s to the singular. 

Some, by being never joined to a masculine noun, have no plural in 
this gender, and then follow the general rule of feminine adjectives. 

1st. Adjectives in al, making their plural aux : 



Annual, 


annal, 


annaux. 


(Not in use.) 


Archiepiscopal, 


archiepiscopal, 


archiepiscopaux 


(Academy.) 


Common 


banal, 


banaux. 


5 (Most generally 
\ used in the fem.) 


Baptismal, 


baptismal, 


baptismaux. 




Biennial, 


biennal, 


biennaux. 


(Academy.) 


Brutal, 


brutal, 


brutaux. 





ADJECTIVE. 95 

Pecuniary, bursal, bursaux. (Les teitsbursaux.) 

Capital, " capital, capitaux. 

And many others. (See the dictionaries.) 

Adjectives in al, making their plural by adding an 5 : 



Fatal, 


fatal, fatals. 


Final, 


final, finals. 


Glacial, (frozen,) 


glacial, glacials. 


Nasal, 


nasal, nasals. 


Naval, 


naval, navals. 


Theatrical, 


theatral, theatrals. 


Adjectives in al, 


having no plural in the masculine : 


Beneficial, 


beneficial. beneficiales. (Plural feminine.) 


Diagonal, 


diagonal, diagonales. 


Borial, 


boreal, boreales. 


Brumal, 


brumal, brumales. 


Crural, 


crural, crurales. 



And several others. (See the dictionaries.) 



OF THE DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 

194. There are three degrees of signification in the adjectives ; 
the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The Positive is the adjective itself, expressing the quality of the 
noun without any increase or diminution ; as, 

Merit is modest, Le merite est modeste. 

Gold is precious, L'or est precieux. 

The Comparative is so called, because it expresses a comparison 
between two or several objects. If we compare persons or things 
together, some are either equal, superior, or inferior, to the others ; 
thus there are three sorts of comparatives — that of equality, that of 
superiority, and that of inferiority. 

COMPARISON OF EQUALITY. 

195. The comparative of equality is formed by adding aussi, as, 
in affirmative sentences, and aussi or si in negative ones, before the 
adjective, and que, as, after it ; as, 

Gold is not so precious as diamond, L'or n'est pas aussi, or si, precieux que 

le diamant. 
I am as good as you, Je suis aussi bon que vous 



96 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

COMPARISON OF SUPERIORITY AND INFERIORITY. 

196. The comparative of superiority is formed by placing plus, 
more, before the adjective, and que, than, after it ; as, 

Gold is more precious than silver. L'or est plus precieux que l'argent. 

In English the comparative of superiority is formed either by 
placing more before the adjective, or by adding er to the termination 
of the adjective ; but these two modes of expression must be ren- 
dered in the same manner in French ; as, 

Peter is richer than Paul. Pierre est plus riche que Paul. 

The comparative of inferiority is formed by prefixing moins, less, 
to the adjective, and placing que after it ; as, 

Silver is less precious than gold. L'argent est moins precieux que l'or. 

When several adjectives qualify the same noun, each one 
must be preceded by one of the adverbs, aussi, plus, moins, according 
to the nature of the comparison, and the last adjective followed by 
que; as, 

This woman is as beautiful, as good, Cette femme est aussi belle, aussi 

and as young as yourself. bonne, et aussi jeune que vous. 

This man is less beautiful, less good, Cet homme est moins beau, moins bon, 

and less young than yourself. et moins jeune que vous. 

This young lady is more handsome, Cette demoiselle est plus belle, plus 

more amiable, and younger than aimable, et plus jeune que vous. 

yourself. 

MORE OR LESS USED AS ADVERBS OF GIUANTITY. 

197. When more or less, plus or moins, are used as adverbs of quantity 
and not of comparison, the conjunction than is expressed by de; as in, 

This book cost me more than two do!- Ce livre me coute plus de deux dollars. 

lars. 

You cannot buy this horse for less than Vous ne pouvez pas acheter ce cheval 

two hundred dollars. pour moins de cent dollars. 

Foreigners should pay attention to this rule. 

OF THE COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES BETTER, WORSE, AND LESS. 

198. There are three adjectives which are comparative by 
themselves : 

Better, meilleur, instead of plus bon. 

Worse, ph'e, " plus mauvais. 

Less, moindre, " plus petit. 



ADJECTIVE. 97 

Beginners in the study of the French language being apt to 
confound these comparative adjectives with the comparative adverbs, 
mieux, pis, moins, because they are rendered in English by the same 
words, better, worse, less, it is necessary, by a comparison between the 
two sorts of words, to show the difference of their formation : 

Adjective, Meilleur, better, is the comparative of good, bon, and is used instead 

of plus bon, which is never used in French. 
Adverb, Mieux, better, is the comparative of well, bien, (adverb,) and is 

used instead of plus bien, which is never used in French. 
Adjective, Pire, worse, is the comparative of mauvais, bad, and is used 

instead of plus mauvais. (Both may be used in French.) 
Adverb, Pis, worse, is the comparative of mal, badly, and is used 

instead of plus mal. (Both may be used in French.) 
Adjective, Moindre, less, is the comparative of petit, less or smaller, and is used 

instead of plus petit. (Both may be used in French.) 
Adverb, Moins, less, is the comparative of peu, little, and is used instead of 

plus peu, which is never used. 

Examples. 
This fruit is good, but that is better. Ce fruit est bon, mais celui-ci est 

meilleur. 
I love you well, but I love him better. Je vous aime fo'en,mais je l'aime mieux. 
His health is bad, but it has been worse. Sa sahte est mauvaise, mais elle a ete 

pire. 
He used to speak badly, but he speaks II parlait mal, mais il parle pis que 

worse than ever. jamais, 

My income is small, but yours is less. Mon revenu est petit, mais le votre est 

moindre. 
I drink little, but you drink still less. Je bois peu, mais vous buvez encore 

moins. 

OF THE SUPERLATIVES, ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE. 

199. The adjective is in the superlative degree of comparison, 
when it expresses the quality of the noun in the highest degree, or in 
a very high degree ; hence there are two sorts of superlatives, the 
absolute and the relative. 

The superlative absolute is made by putting tres,fort, bien, very, 
before the adjective ; it is called absolute, because it expresses no 
relation to other objects ; as, 

Boston is a very fine city. Boston est une tres belle ville. 

The adverbs, extremely, extremement, infinitely, infiniment, are also 
the sign of the superlative absolute : 

This woman is extremely amiable. Cette femme est extremement aimable. 

This man is supremely happy. Cet homme est infiniment heureux. 

The superlative relative is formed by placing the article before the 
comparatives, plies, pis, moins, meilleur, pire, moindre; it is relative, 
9 



98 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

because it expresses a relation to other objects ; the article must be 
of the same number and gender as the adjective. 

Paris is the finest of cities. Paris est la plus belle des villes. 

You are the smaller of the two. Vous etes le moins grand des deux. 

He is the worst of the family. II est le pire de la famille, &c. 

When several adjectives in either of the superlatives qualify a 
noun, the adverbs, plus, moins, fort, extrhnement, &c, must be 
repeated before every one of them, as well as the article, when the 
superlative is relative. 

200. Remark. When the adjective used in the superlative relative 
is placed before the noun, the article the is used but once ; as in, 

Your sister is the most handsome Votre sceur est la plus belle femme que 
woman I have ever seen. j'ai jamais vue. 

But if the superlative should be placed before the noun, the article 
the should be used twice before the noun and in the superlative ; as, 

Your sister is the most accomplished Votre soeur est la femme la plus ac- 
woman I know. complie que je connaisse. 



OF THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 

201. There is no absolute rule in reference to the place of adjec- 
tives ; taste and euphony are the only guides, in many cases. Usage, 
however, has decided that some of them, on account of their origin or 
signification, should always follow or precede the nouns which they 
qualify ; whilst others acquire an entirely different meaning by being 
placed before or after them. We will, therefore, divide the adjectives 
into three classes : — 

(1.) Those which always follow the noun. 

(2.) Those which have a different meaning by being placed before 
and after the noun. 

(3.) Those of which the place is fixed by taste and euphony. 

OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE INVARIABLY PLACED AFTER THE NOUN. 

(1.) Adjectives derived from past participles ; as, 

An accomplished woman. CJne femme accomplie. 

A distinguished man. Un homme distingue. 

(2.) Adjectives expressing form, color, taste, flavor, and sound ; as, 

A round table. Une table ronde. 

A white house. Une maison blanche. 



ADJECTIVE. 99 

Sweet wine. Du vin doux. 

An odoriferous flower. Une fleur odoriferante. 

A sonorous voice. Une voix sonore. 

(3.) Adjectives performing the part of nouns ; as, 

A royal palace, (a palace of a king.) Un palais royal. 

The paternal tenderness, (of a father.) La tendresse paternelle. 

A grammatical principle, (of a gram- Un principe grammatical. 
mar.) 

(4.) Adjectives expressing the point of view in which we consider 
things or persons ; as, 

A necessary, possible, or impossible Une chose necessaire, possible, impossible. 

thing. 

An absurd idea. Une idee absurde. 

A dangerous man. Un homme dangereux. 

A moi'tal disease. Une maladie mortelle. 

Mortel is sometimes placed before the noun, but then it signifies 
tedious, wearisome ; as, 

Three wearisome miles. Trois mortels milles. 

(5.) Adjectives which express the state or situation of persons and 
things, and those which refer to habits ; as, 

A quiet or peaceable man. Un homme tranquille, calme. 

An idle or drunken man. Un homme oisif, ivre. 

Thick or thin cloth. Du drap epais, ou mince. 

(6.) Adjectives which express an outward or accidental modifica- 
tion ; as, 

A blind or humpbacked man. Un homme aveugle ou bossu. 
A knotty stick. Un baton noueux. 

(7.) Adjectives merely distinguishing objects by genus, species, or 
sort ; as, 

A reasonable animal. Un animal raisonnable. 

A fruit-tree. Un arbre fruitier. 

A personal pronoun. Un pronom personnel. 

(8.) Adjectives designating countries ; as, 

The French army. L'armee Franpaise. 

The American coin. La monnaie Americaine. 



100 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OP ADJECTIVES WHICH SOMETIMES PRECEDE AND SOMETIMES FOLLOW THE 
NOUN WITHOUT CHANGING THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 

203. (1.) Adjectives derived from present participles, generally 
follow the noun, but a great number may be placed before it ; as, 

A fascinating woman, Une femme seduisante. 

An interesting book, Un livre attachant. 

A charming music, Une charmanle musique. 

A charming country-house, Une charmante maison de campagne. 

204. (2.) Adjectives which by their meaning have some analogy 
with the noun which they qualify, are placed before the noun, and 
after it if that analogy does not exist ; as, 

A wise magistrate, Un sage magistral 

A wise man, Un homme sage. 

In the first expression, there is an analogy between wisdom and the 
character of the following noun, for a magistrate is supposed to be 
wise — he could not be a magistrate without being so ; but the word 
man does not necessarily imply the idea of wisdom, for there are many 
more fools than wise men ; hence the place of the adjective in either 
case. 

For the same reason, we may say, 

Good wine, De bon vin. A large tree. Un grand arbre. 

Bad bread, De mauvais pain. A small child, Un petit enfant. 

205. Remark. In the language of passion, piety, and admiration, 
in poetry and metaphorical style, many of the adjectives which we 
have classed among those that should be placed after the noun, are 
elegantly placed before it ; as, 

An amiable object, Un aimable objet ; Tender looks, De tendres regards ; 
White hands, De blanches mains ; A wicked man, Un mediant homme ; 

although there is no necessary analogy between an object and amia- 
bleness, between looks and tenderness, and man and wickedness, &c. 
In speaking of a man, if we say, 

He is extremely miserable, II est dans une mis^re extreme, 

we merely intimate that his misery is great, without inferring any 
intention on our part to interest others in that distress, which would 
be the case if we should say, 

II est dans une extreme misere. 



ADJECTIVE. 



101 



206. Numerical adjectives are generally placed before the noun ; but 
when they are used to designate a person or a thing among others 
of the same name, by the rank which they occupy among them, they 
are placed after it when speaking of persons, and indifferently, before 
or after, when speaking of things ; as in, 



The disobedience of Adam was the first 

fault of our first parents, 
Louis the Twelfth and Louis the 

Eleventh were two French kings of 

a very different character, 
Volume first, 
Chapter tenth. 



La desobeissance d'Adam fut la premiere 

faute de nos premiers parens. 
Louis Onze et Louis Douze furent deux 

rois de France d'un caractere bieii 

different. 
Volume premier , or premier volume. 
Chapitre dix, or dixierne chapitre. 



When placed before the noun, ordinal adjectives are used ; placed 
after, we employ the cardinal, except for the numbers first and second. 



OF ADJECTIVES WHICH CHANGE ENTIRELY THEIR SIGNIFICATION BY BEING 
PLACED EEFORE OR AFTER CERTAIN NOUNS. 

207. We shall not mention here all the adjectives which belong to 
this class, — good dictionaries give the necessary information on the 
subject ; we will only mention those which, exposing foreigners to 
disagreeable blunders, require their particular attention at an early 
period of their instruction. They are the following : 



Un grand homme, 

Un homme grand, 

Un petit homme, 

Un homme petit, 

Un bon homme, 

Un homme bon, 

Un brave homme, 

Un homme brave, 

Une certaine chose, 

Une chose certaine, 

D'une commune voix, 

Une voix commune, 

La derniere annee de la guerre, 

L'annee derniere, 

Une sage femme, 

Une femme sage, 

Une grosse femme, 

Une femme grosse, 

Un galant homme, 

L'n homme galant, 
Un gentil-homme, 
Un homme gentil, 
De nouveau vin, 
Du vin nouveau, 
Un pauvre auteur, 
Un auteur pauvre, 

9* 



A great man. 
A tall man. 
A small man. 
A mean man. 
A simple-minded man. 
A good man. 
An honest man, 
A brave man. 
A certain thing. 
A positive tiling. 
Unanimously. 
A common voice. 
The last year of the war. 
Last year. 
A midwife. 
A wise woman. 
A big woman. 

A woman in a state of pregnancy. 
A man who has the character and man- 
ners of a gentleman. 
A man who is gallant with the ladies. 
A nobleman. 

A man who is pretty, gay, lively, &c. 
Some other kind of wine. 
Wine newly made. 
A poor writer. 
A writer who is not rich. 



102 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

C Un honnete homme, An honest man. 

\ Un homme honnete. A polite man. 

< Un mallionnete homme, A dishonest man. 

{ Un homme mallionnete, A man of ill breeding. 

C Une mechante epigramme, A flat epigram. 

\ Une epigramme mechante, A wicked epigram. 



OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE PLACED AFTER THE NOUN FOR THE SAKE OF 

EUPHONY. 

208. Adjectives ending in ic, ique, el, He, ul, ule, and esque, are, 
those of the first termination always, and the others most generally, 
placed after the noun on account of euphony ; as in, 

A public man, Un homme public. 

A public square, Une place publique. 

A splendid chateau, Un chateau magnifique. 

A trifle, Une chose futile. 

A credulous woman, Une femme credule. 

OF THE PLACE OF TWO OR MORE ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING THE SAME NOUN. 

209. (1.) When two or several adjectives qualify a noun, and one 
of them belongs to the class of those which should always follow the 
noun, they are all placed after that which they qualify ; as in, 

She is a beautiful, amiable, and accom- C'est une femme belle, aimable, et ac- 
plished woman, complie. 

Accomplie, being derived from the past participle of the verb to 
accomplish, belongs to one of the classes mentioned above. 

An illustrious and classical author, Un auteur illustre et classique; 

because classique bears no necessary affinity to, nor is it necessarily in 
harmony with, the noun, inasmuch as it alludes rather to a class than 
to an individual. 

210. (2.) But when both adjectives could individually be placed 
before the noun, it becomes a matter of taste and euphony, whether 
they precede or follow it ; as in, 

A brave and intrepid soldier, \ ^ n br ™ e * intr ^f e , s ? ld f ' or 

r ' I Un soldat brave et intrepide. 

A We and fine citv $ Une S rande et bdle ville > or 

A large and fane city, J Une ^ ^^ eJ . ^^ 

There is a natural analogy between the idea of a soldier and that 
of bravery and intrepidity, and between the idea of a city and that of 
splendor and size. 

211. (3.) When two adjectives are used to indicate the external 
appearance of persons and things, and one of them may, on account 



ADJECTIVE. 103 

of its meaning, be placed before the noun, that noun may be placed 
between the two ; as in, 

I placed my goods in a large open Je placai mes marchandises dans un 

basket. grand panier ouvert. 

He is a tall, thin man. C'est un grand homrae maigre. 

212. Remark. It should be observed, that adjectives can never, as 
in English, be placed before a noun without being united by the con- 
junction and or neither, or, et or ni, ou ; but they may follow it when 
there are more than two, and the conjunction et placed before the last ; 
as in, 

Your sister is a pretty, amiable, rich, Votre sceur est une femme jolie, aim- 
generous, and well-bred woman. able, riche, genereuse, et bien nee. 



OF ADJECTIVES CONSIDERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR RELATIONS 
WITH OTHER WORDS. 

213. The relations of adjectives with other words are the fol- 
lowing : 

1st. Agreement of adjectives with nouns. 
2d. Use of adjectives with the article. 
3d. Object of the adjective. 



OF THE AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

214. The adjective makes but one with the noun which it qualifies ; 
consequently, it must follow the inflection of the noun and agree with 
it in number and gender ; as, 

Good father. Bon pere. 

Good mother. Bonne mere. 

Exquisite wine. Excellents vins. 

Handsome women. Belles femmes. 

OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS OF THE SAME GENDER, AND 
UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 

215. Whenever an adjective is preceded or followed by several 
nouns of the same gender, and united by the conjunction and, et, it 
takes the plural, and is of the same gender as the nouns ; as in, 

The Arabs have their face and body Les Arabes ont le visage et le eorpt 
burnt bv the heat of the sun. brutes de Pardeur du soleil. 



104 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

But if the nouns should have some similarity in their signification, 
as they would then in fact represent but one idea, the adjective should 
be used in the singular and agree with the last ; as in, 

He received us with an insufferable II nous recut avec unfaste et un orgue.il 
ostentation and pride. insupportable. 

OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS OF A DIFFERENT GENDER. 

216. Whenever an adjective is used to qualify several nouns of a 
different gender, it is used in the plural number and masculine gender ; 
as in, 

The inhabitants of the Strait of Davis Les habitans du detrait de Davis man- 
eat their fish and meat raw. gent leur poisson (m.) et leur viande 

(f.) crus. 

Euphony sometimes requires that the feminine noun should be 
expressed first when the adjective has not the same termination in 
either gender ; thus we must say, 

The actor plays with perfect dignity Get acteur joue avec une noblesse et un 
and taste, gout parfaits, 

rather than, 

Cet acteur joue avec un gout et une noblesse parfaits ; 

because in this last sentence the feminine noun noblesse and the 
adjective par/ails, plural masculine, would form a dissonance dis- 
agreeable to the ear. 

OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS WHICH ARE UNITED BY THE 
CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 

217. When two or several nouns are synonymous in their meaning 
and one only is intended to be qualified by the adjective which follows 
them both, this adjective agrees with the last. 

His whole life has been spent in con- Toute sa vie n'a ete qu : un travail et une 
tinued labor and occupation. occupation continuelle. 

The same rule is applied whenever there is a gradation in the 
meaning of the several nouns qualified by the adjective ; as in, 

The knife, the headband, the fire, all is Le/er, le bandeau, la flamme, est toute 
ready. prete. 

OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY TWO OR SEVERAL NOUNS, AND RELATING ONLY 
TO THE LAST. 

218. When an adjective is preceded by several nouns, united or not 
by the conjunction and, et, and qualifies only the last, it should agree 



ADJECTIVE. 105 

with this one and should not be used in the plural on account of those 
which precede it ; as in, 

A smile is a sign of benevolence, ap- Le sourire est une marque de bienveil- 
probation and internal satisfaction. lance, d'applaudissement et de satis- 

faction interieure. 

OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY SEVERAL NOUNS, SEPARATED BY THE CON- 
JUNCTION OR, OU. 

219. When an adjective is preceded by two nouns separated by the 
conjunction or, ou, it agrees with the last if it is intended to qualify 
only one of them ; as in, 

As Rome was no longer free, and could Rome n'etant plus libre et ne pouvant 

no more be sucb, it mattered but plus l'etre, qu'importait que Pompee 

little who would be its master, ou que Cesar fut maitre. 
whether Pompeius or Caesar. 

Maitre is in the singular, because there could be but one master in 
Rome. 

But if the adjective should at once qualify the two nouns, the 
agreement should take place with both : as in, 

Who is the father who would not Quel est le bon pere de famille qui ne 
mourn over his son and daughter gemisse de voir son jils ou sa fille 
being lost for the world. perdus pour la societe. 

Perdus is in the plural, because the mind refers to both as being 
lost. 

OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SOMETIMES THE FIRST, SOMETIMES THE SECOND 
NOUN, WHEN IT IS PRECEDED BY SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE PREP- 
OSITION OF, DE. 

220. When an adjective is preceded by two nouns separated by o/*, 
de, it agrees with the first or the last, according to the sense of the 
sentence ; as in, 

White silk stockings, Des bas de soie blancs. 

A skein of white silk, Un echeveau de soie blanche. 

In the first sentence, the mind does not think of the material which, 
being white, renders the stockings of that color, but of the stockings 
themselves, which strike the eyes as being white. 

In the second example, it is the material which occupies the mind, 
the skein being only the shape in which it is presented to the eye. 

OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE CONJUNC- 
TIONS AJNSI QOE, ACSSI BIEN QUE, AS WELL AS, COMME, AS, AVEC, WITH, Sec. 

221. When an adjective is used with several nouns separated by 
the above conjunctions or any other having the same signification, it 



106 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

agrees only with the first of those nouns if the sentence expresses a 
comparison, and with all, if the sentence implies the idea of addition 
or simultaneousness ; as in, 

Truth as well as light is unalterable. La verite cornme la lumiere est inal- 
terable (comparison.) 
In Egypt, Asia and Greece, Bacchus Dans l'Egypte, dans l'Asie et dans la 
as well as Hercules was worshipped Grece, Bacchus ainsi qu'Hercule 
as a demi-god. etaient reconnus pour demi-Dieux 

(addition.) 



OF EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES RELATING TO THE AGREEMENT OF THE 
ADJECTIVE. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE FEU, LATE. 

222. The adjective feu, late, is invariable when placed before the 
article or adjective possessive pronoun, but it varies if placed after 
them ; as in, 

The late Queen. Feu la reine or lafeue reine. 

My late mother. Feu ma mere or mafeue mdre. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE NU, NAKED. 

223. The adjective nu, naked, remains invariable when it precedes 
a noun, but it agrees with that noun when it follows it ; as in, 

He goes barefooted. II va nupieds or les pieds nus. 

But when the adjective nu is preceded by the article the used in the 
feminine, it agrees with the noun which it qualifies, although it is 
placed* before it ; as in, 

My father has kept for himself the title Mon pere s'est conserve la nue propriete 
to his lands and given the reveuue to de ses terres et en a abandonne 
his children. l'usu fruit a ses enfants. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE DEMI, HALF. 

224. Whenever the adjective demi is placed before a noun, it forms 
with that noun a compound expression in which the two words are 
joined by a hyphen, and remains invariable ; but when placed after 
the noun, it agrees with that noun in gender but not in number, for 
two halves make one whole ; three halves make one whole and a 
half, &c. ; thus we say : 

One hour and a half, Une heure et demie. Half an hour, Une demi-heure. 



ADJECTIVE. 107 

But if the word Jemi should be used as a noun in a sentence like 
the following, it should be used in the plural : 

This clock strikes the hours but not the Cette horloge sonne les heures, mais elle 
half-hours. ne sonne pas les demies. 

Demi, although an adjective, is sometimes used as an adverb, and 
then it never varies ; as in, 

Half-fool, half-dead, half-rotten, &c. De?ni-fou, demi-mort , demi-pourri, &c. 

OF THE ADJECTIVES EXCEPTE, EXCEPTED, PASSE, PAST, SUPPOSE, SUPPOSED, 
VU CONSIDEJUNO, Y COiUPRIS, HEBE INCLUDED, FRANC DE PORT, FREE OF 
POSTAGE, &c. 

2-25. When the above expressions, or any of tne same nature, are 
placed before a noun, they act as prepositions, and remain invariable ; 
but they do vary when they follow it ; as in, 

All is well made in this house except Tout est bien fait dans cette maison 

the doors. excepte les portes. 

You will find here included a copy of Vous trouverez ci-inclus une copie de 

my last letter. ma dernier lettre. 

I recommend you the five letters here Je vous recommande les cinq lettres ci- 

included. incluses. 

You will receive this letter free of Vous recevrez cette lettre franche de 

postage. port. 

Vous recevrez franc de port la lettre 
ci-jointe. 



OF ADJECTIVES PERFORMING THE PARTS OF ADVERBS OR NOUNS. 

226. When an adjective is used to modify the signification of a 
verb, it acts the part of an adverb and does not vary ; as in, 

This woman sings out of tune. Cette femme chantefaux. 

This rose smells good. Cette rose sent bon. 

If an adjective, used as such, acts the part of a noun, it never 
varies ; as. 

The moulting of the agate canary-birds La mue des serins agate (de couleur 
lasts longer than that of others. agate) est plus longue que celle des 

autres. 

When there are in a sentence two adjectives, the first of which is 
modified by the second, these two adjectives remain invariable ; as, 

These tissues are of a dark blue. Ces etoffes sont (d'un) bleu-fonce. 

His hair is of a light chestnut color. II a les cheveux (d'un) ch&tain-clair. 



108 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

But if the two adjectives, placed one after another, are both used to 
qualify the same noun, they must then agree with that noun ; as, 

The hair of that child was chestnut, Les cheveux de cette enfant etaient 
brown and fine. ch&tains, bruns et fins. 



OF THE COMPOUND ADJECTIVES NEW-BORN, DEAD-DRUNK, &c. 

227. When in a compound adjective, the first is used adverbially, 
it remains invariable, and the second only changes ; as in, 

New-born animals want their mother Les animaux nouveau-nes n'ont besoin, 
only for a few months. de leurs meres que pendant quelques 

mois. 

Nouveau is used here instead of the adverb nouvellement, newly. 

It should be observed that nouveau cannot be used adverbially 
before an adjective relating to a feminine noun ; thus, we cannot say, 
Une fille nouveau-nee, but Une fille nouvellement nee, for, A new-born 
girl. 

But if the first adjective is not used adverbially, and serves as well 
as the second to qualify the noun already expressed, they both vary ; 



Have you seen the newly-married Avez-vous vu les nouveaux-maries ? 
couple *! 



OF THE GENDER OF ADJECTIVES USED WITH THE WORD AIR, 
APPEARANCE. 

228. As it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the gender of the 
adjective which is used to qualify the word air, we will try to give 
some explanation on the subject. 

Grammarians differ on this difficulty ; we will therefore state here 
what we think to be consecrated by usage and the authority of good 
writers. 

Avoir Pair, to have the appearance, to appear, may be used in 
speaking of animated beings or things. 

229. (1.) When this expression is applied to animated beings, the 
adjective which is preceded by the word air expresses either a moral 
faculty, a quality, a metaphysical distinction, or else it designates a 
form, a manner of being merely physical. 



ADJECTIVE. 109 

In the first instance, as the adjective may always reasonably qualify 
the word air, it should agree with the noun ; so we say, 

She looks frivolous and absent. Elle a Pair leger et distrait. 

They look haughty, but at the same Elles ont Vair hautain, mais l'acceuil 

time they are familiar. familier. 

Do not have yourself painted in a rid- Ne vous fakes pas peindre en Amazone ; 

ing-dress ; you look too gentle for it. vous avez Vair trop doux. 

Parisian women do not appear awkward Les Parisiennes n'ont pas Vair gauche 

and embarrassed in their manners. et embarrasse. 

In the second instance, as a physical quality cannot be applied to 
the word air, the adjective which follows that noun should agree with 
the animated being spoken of; as in 

This lady seems to be well made. Cette dame a l'air bien faite. 

She looks pleased with what has just Elle a l'air contente de ce qu'on vient 
been said to her. de lui dire. 

230. (2.) When avoir Fair is applied to things, there is no 
difficulty ; for the adjective cannot qualify the noun air, as inanimate 
beings can only have physical qualifications ; then we should say, 

This house looks as if it were strongly Cette maison a l'air solidement batie. 

built. 
This soup appears to be very good. Cette soupe a l'air tres bonne. 

In this latter case, the sentences are elliptical ; the verb to be is 
understood. Some grammarians pretend that the ellipsis is not 
allowed in such cases ; but usage has consecrated it, as well as many 
of our best writers ; and the sentence, Cette soupe a Vair bonne, is 
more generally used and more elegant than Cette soupe a Pair d'etre 
bonne. 



OF THE AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES USED IN THE SUPERLATIVE 
DEGREE. 

231. An adjective, when used in the superlative degree, has lost 
nothing of its nature of a qualificative, since it expresses still a quality 
in a very or in the highest degree ; it therefore follows the general 
rule ; but it is sometimes the case that a superlative refers to a noun 
which is not expressed ; the sentence is then elliptical, and the mind 
supplying the noun understood, the adjective agrees with it ; as in, 

Winter is the dullest of seasons. L'hiver est (la saison) la plus triste dea 

saisons. 

Remark. Adjectives in the comparative or superlative degree in 
French, are most generally placed after the noun. 
10 



110 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF ADJECTr^ES AS QUALIFYING NOUNS OF PERSONS OR THINGS ONLY. 

232. There are adjectives which can only qualify nouns of persons ; 
such as, econome, saving ; inconsolable, inconsolable ; patriote, pat- 
riotic ; despote, despotic, &c. ; and others which can only be applied 
to things ; as, despotique, despotic ; tconomique, economical ; pardon- 
noble, excusable ; patriotique, patriotic, &c. Adjectives which are 
derived from the verbs, such as, pardonnoble, inconsolable, which come 
from pardonner, consoler, are applied to persons or things, inasmuch 
as these verbs have for their direct object a noun of person or thing ; 
therefore, as we do not say in French, Pardonner une personne, we 
cannot use the expression, Une personne pardonnoble ; but as we say, 
Pardonner une chose, we can say, Une chose pardonnoble. For the 
same reason, we cannot apply the adjective inconsolable to things, for 
persons and not things are to be consoled. 

But although this rule is applicable in most cases, there are a few 
exceptions which usage renders legitimate as the following : Un roi 
obei, a king who is obeyed ; une chose convenue, a thing agreed upon ; 
Un hat desespere, a hopeless situation ; although we cannot say, 
Obeir un roi, but d, un roi; Convenir une chose, but d'une chose; 
Desesperer une chose, but d'une chose. 



OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE NOT SUSCEPTIBLE OF COMPARISON. 

233. Grammarians do not agree upon the adjectives which do not 
admit of the degrees of comparison ; the principle which should be 
admitted as a guide in this difficulty is, that when an adjective 
expresses a qualification in a very or in the highest degree, it is better 
not to use it in the comparative or superlative form ; such are the 
following : Charmant, charming ; mortel, mortal ; kernel, eternal ; 
supreme, supreme ; imrnortel, immortal, ; because a thing or person 
cannot be more or less charming, mortal, eternal, &c. 



OF ADJECTIVES OF DIMENSION. 

234. There is a difference in the construction of French and 
English sentences when speaking of the dimensions of a thing, that 
requires the attention of foreigners. 



ADJECTIVE. Ill 

Instead of the verb to be, which is used in English, the verb to 
have is employed in French, and the preposition of is placed before the 
word which expresses the dimension ; as in, 

This room is twenty feet long. Cette chambre a vmgt pieds de longueur. 

The word which expresses the dimension may be a noun or an 
adjective ; the noun can always be used, but not so with the 
adjective ; for, speaking of depth and thickness, we would not say : 

This keel is ten feet deep. Ce puits a dix pieds de profond. 

This wall is three feet thick. Ce mur a trois pieds d'epais. 

We should use the nouns profondeur and epaisseur. 

When two dimensions are spoken of in the sentence, the prepo- 
sition sur, upon, is placed before the second proposition ; as in, 

This room is fifteen feet long and twelve Cette chambre a quinze pieds de Ion- 
feet wide. gueur sur douze de largeur. 

Finally, if the three dimensions are expressed, the conjunction and, 
et, is used before the last ; as in, 

This room is sixteen feet long, twelve Cette chambre a seize pieds delongueur 
feet wide and ten feet high. sur douze de largeur et dix de hauteur. 

235. Sometimes the sentence is constructed in English without the 
verb to be being used ; as in, 

There is in this house a room twenty feet wide. 

Then the verb to have is not expressed in French, and the prepo- 
sition of is used twice, once before the numeral adjective, the second 
time before the word of dimension ; as, 

II y a dans cette maison une chambre de vingt pieds de longueur. 

The other dimensions should be expressed as above, with sur before 
the second and et before the last proposition. 

There is still another manner of expressing dimension in French, 
but as that we have just given is the most elegant and the most 
generally used, we deem it unnecessary to mention it. 

In comparative sentences, the English, to express a difference, turn 
their phrases in this way : 

She is taller than her sister by a whole head. 



112 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

But, 

Elle est plus grande que sa soeur de toute la tete, 
is the French construction, making use of de, of, instead of by. 



OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE ARTICLE. 

236. Adjectives expressing only modes and qualities are not 
preceded by the article, except in a few instances, which will be 
explained hereafter ; thus we say, without an article, 

Men are often good or bad only for the Les hommes sent souvent bons ou maw- 
reason that they have received good vais par cela seul qu'ils ont recu de 
or bad examples. bons ou de mauvais exemples. 

But adjectives used as nouns are, like nouns, preceded by the 
article, if the case requires it ; as, 

Fools invent fashions and wise men Les fous inventent les modes et les 
conform to them. sages s'y conferment. 

237. When a noun is accompanied by two adjectives expressing 
opposite qualifications, the article must be repeated before each 
adjective ; as, 

The old and the new-raised soldiers Les vieux et les nouveaux soldats sont 

are full of ardor. rernplis d'ardeur. 

A man who cares for bis reputation Un horame qui est jaloux de sa repu- 
ought to frequent good and avoid tation doit frequenter la bonne corn- 
bad company. pagnie etfuir la mauvaise. 

The reason of this is, that adjectives opposite in signification cannot 
at the same time modify the same substantive ; a soldier cannot be 
young and old at once, and company cannot be both good and bad. 
Then there is an ellipsis, in the two above examples, of the word 
soldier after old, and of the word company after good, and the 
existence of two nouns requires the use of the article before each, 
their meaning being definite. 

238. But, if the qualifications expressed by the adjectives are 
similar, the noun being jointly modified by them, the ellipsis does not 
exist, and consequently the article is not repeated ; as, 

The wise and pious Fenelon. Le sage et vertueux Fenelon. 

There being but one individual who is wise and pious. 



ADJECTIVE. 113 

When the qualifications, without being incompatible, are somewhat 
different, it is correct to repeat the article, although not indispensable ; 
as, 

The sensible and ingenious Fenelon. Le sensible et l'ingenieux Fenelon. 

Here one of the qualities belongs to the mind, the other to the 
heart ; but in general the ear must be consulted in cases similar to 
this, in preference to rules. 

239. Before adjectives prefixed to proper names, either to express 
their qualities or to distinguish the person spoken of from those who 
might bear the same name, the article is used ; thus we say, 

The sublime Bossuet, Le sublime Bossuet. 

The virtuous Fenelon, Le vertueux Fenelon. 

The tender Racine, Le tendre Racine. 

Henry the Great, Henry le Grand. 

Louis the Fat, Louis le Gros. 

Louis the Beloved, Louis le Bien-aime. 

The adjective preceding the noun shows but a distinct quality, but, 
when following it, points out the noun as a particular one among 
others like it. The above examples demonstrate the truth of this 
remark. 

240. When a superlative relative precedes a substantive, the article 
serves for both ; as, 

The ablest men sometimes commit the Les plus habiles gens font souvent les 
grossest blunders. plus grandes fautes. 

But if it follows the substantive, the article must be repeated : 

Les gens les plus habiles font souvent les fautes les plus grandes. 

When two or more superlatives modify a noun, the sign of the 
superlative, either relative or absolute, must be repeated before each 
adjective : as, 

It is equally the custom of the most C'est egalement la coutume des peuples 
barbarous and the most civilized les plus barbares et les plus civilises, 
people, 

and not, 

C'est egalement la coutume des peuples les plus barbares et civilises. 

241. We have seen, by the preceding rules, that when the article 
is used with the adjective, it always precedes it ; but there is an 
exception. 

10* 



114 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The adjective, all, tout, when employed with the article, always 
precedes it ; thus we say, 

Everybody says that you are a rogue. Tout le monde dit que vous 6tes un 

coquin. 



REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES 

242. The regimen or object of an adjective may be a substantive 
or a verb preceded by a preposition. 

Some adjectives have no object, because they have in themselves a 
complete, determined, and fixed signification ; as, 

Courageous, courageux. 

Brave, brave. 

Wise, sage, &c. 

Some must have an object, because they ought to be restricted, to 
have a determined signification ; as, 

Able, capable. 

Ready, pret. 

Willing, dispose, &c. 

Some, in fine, sometimes have an object, sometimes not. They 
have an object when what we wish to express requires restriction. 
They have no object when employed by the mind in a general 
sense ; as, 

Sensible, sensible. 

Contented, content. 

Sorry, fache, &c. 

243. Rule. We must not give an object to an adjective which 
should have none, and we must be careful not to give any which is 
not authorized by usage. 

The application of this rule presents some difficulty ; it depends 
principally upon habit, which can be acquired only by time, and with 
the aid of a good dictionary. 



OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY THE VERB TO BE. ETRE, USED 
IMPERSONALLY. 

244. Whenever an adjective is employed with the verb to be, etre, 
impersonally, it should be followed by the preposition of, de t 



ADJECTIVE. 115 

although in other cases, that adjective might require another prepo- 
sition ; as in, 

It is difficult to learn French. II est difficile d'apprendre le Francais 1 

It is pleasant to be acquainted with // est agreable de savoir les langues 

foreign languages. etrangeres. 

This language is difficult to leam. Cette langue est difficile d apprendre. 

This wine is pleasant to drink. Ce vin est agreable a boire. 

In the two first sentences, the adjectives difficile and agreable are 
used impersonally and take de after them ; in the two last, they are 
not, and require to be followed by the preposition ii, to. 



OF THE ADJECTIVES A, UN. 

A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT WITH TWO OR SEVERAL NOUNS UNITED BY THE 
CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 

245. The adjective a, un, is repeated before each noun, as well as 
the article the, unless the nouns designate two qualifications which 
belong to a single individual ; as in, 

An Englishman, a Frenchman, an On recommit facilement un Anglais, un 
Italian, and a Spaniard, are easily Francais, tin Italien, etwnEspagnol, 
recognised by manners and features. a son style et aux traits de son 

visage. 

This young gentleman is the son of a Ce jeune homme est le fils d'un due et 
duke and peer. pair. 

A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT WITH TWO OR SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE 
CONJUNCTION OH, OU. 

2-16. The adjective a, un, is repeated before each noun when 
separated by the conjunction or, ou, provided they have a different 
signification ; but it is not repeated if the second noun is but the 
explanation of the first, in which case, if the nouns were not of the 
same gender, the adjective should agree with the first ; as in, 

When I walk, I always hold a Virgil or Lorsque je me promene, j'ai toujours 
a Tacitus in my hand. un Virgile ou un Tacite d la main. 

In a well-regulated country, there ought Dans un pays bien organise, il ne doit 
to be but one chief or supreme magis- y avoir qu'un seul chef ou magistral 
trate. supreme. 

A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT BEFORE TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED BY THE CON- 
JUNCTION AND, ET. 

247. A, un, is repeated before two adjectives united by and, et, 
whenever, on account of their signification, they cannot qualify the 
same noun, but it is not repeated if the two adjectives are used to 
qualify the same person or thing ; as in, 



116 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1 saw this morning a small and a large J'ai vu ce matin une petite et une 
house, which pleased me much. grande maison, qui me plaisent beau- 

coup. 

The life of a Christian is a long and La vie du Chretien est un long et 
pious pilgrimage. pieux pelerinage. 

A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT BEFORE TWO ADJECTIVES SEPARATED BY THE 
CONJUNCTION OH, OU. 

248. When two adjectives separated by or, ou, precede the noun, 
un is repeated before each ; but if they follow it, un is used but once ; 
as in, 

The happiness of a people depends Le bonheur d'un peuple depend d'une 

upon its having a good or bad ad- bonne ou d'une mauvaise administra- 

ministration. tion. 

Under a prince who is feeble or little Sous un prince faible ou peu laborieux, 

inclined to labor, the people are gen- le peuple est ordinairement mal- 

erally unhappy. heureux. 

Remark. In proverbs, maxims or sententious expressions, un is 
used or not ; it is a matter of taste ; as in, 

Too constant a happiness sometimes Un bonheur trop constant devient sou- 
becomes intolerable. vent insupportable. 

A wise woman is worth more than a Femme sage est plus que femme belle, 
beautiful one. 

OF A EMPLOYED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A NOUN QUALIFIED OR NOT BY AN 
ADJECTIVE AS THE ATTRIBUTE OF THE VERB TO BE. 

249. Whenever a noun preceded by a is used in English as the 
complement or attribute of the verb to be, un is not expressed in 
French, unless the English noun should be qualified by an adjective 
or a qualificative expression, or the verb to be should have flor its 
nominative the pronoun ce ; as m, 

My father was a general and my uncle Mon pere etait general et mon oncle 

an admiral. amiral. 

One of your brothers is a distinguished L'un de vos freres est un general dis- 

general, and the other an admiral of tingue, et l'autre un amiral de 

great reputation. grande reputation. 

What is your father's profession 1 He Quelle est la profession de monsieur 

is a physician. votre pere 1 II est medecin, or, 

C'est un medecin. 

In the first sentence, the names general and amiral are used as mere 
adjectives ; no idea of individuality is attached to these words ; the 
second sentence, on the contrary, points out the persons spoken of not 
only as occupying the ranks of general and admiral, but as being 
among those of the same rank, the one a general and the other an 
admiral, of a particular kind, and the adjective un serves to convey 
this view of the mind. 



ADJECTIVE. 117 

250. Remark. Whenever the adjective grand is used with the 
following noun to designate a certain situation in the government of a 
country, the two words should then be united by a hyphen, as 
forming but one word, and un should not be expressed ; as in, 

Mr. M** is a grand-officer of the legion Monsieur M** est grand-officier de la 
of honor. legion d'honneur. 

The same remark applies to any expression of the same character. 

OF A BEFORE A NOUN OR A PROPOSITION USED IN APPOSITION IN ENGLISH. 

251. Whenever a is used in English before a noun or an expression 
used in apposition to another, un is not expressed in French ; as, 

The best coffee comes from Mocha, Le mcilleur cafe vient de Moka, ville 
a town of Arabia Felix. de l'Arabie heureuse. 

All the nations of the globe have a Tous les peuples de la terre ont une 
notion more or less clear of the idee plus on moins juste de l'exist- 
existence of a Supreme Being, an ence d'un etre Supreme, preuve evi- 
evident proof that original sin has dente que le peche originel n'a pas 
not totally obscured our understand- tout-a-fait obscurci notre jugement. 



OF A PLACED IN ENGLISH AFTER WHAT, BEFORE A NOUN PRECEDED OR NOT 
BY AN ADJECTIVE. 

252. A used in English after the pronoun ivhat, before a noun or 
an adjective, is not expressed in French. 

What a beautiful morning ! Quelle belle matinee ! 

"What a man Napoleon was ! Quel homme etait Napoleon ! 

OF A PLACED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A NOUN EXPRESSING MEASURE OR WEIGHT. 

253. A, used in English before a noun expressing measure or 
weight, is rendered in French by the article the : 

Com sells for eight shillings a busbel. Le ble sevend huit schellings le bois- 

seau. 
This lace sells at two dollars a yard. Cette dentelle se vend deux gourdes 

Vaune. 



OF A PLACED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A WORD EXPRESSING A PERIOD OF TI.UE. 

254. When a is used in English at the end of a sentence, before a 
noun expressing any period of time, it is rendered in French by the 
preposition by, par; as in, 

My father earns ten dollars a week. Men pere gagne dix gourdes par se- 

maine. 
I g to France three times a year. Je vais en France trois fois par an. 



118 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE ADJECTIVE A USED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A NOUN, PRECEDED OR NOT 
BY AN ADJECTIVE, IN AN INTERROGATIVE OR AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE USED 
NEGATIVELY. 

255. Whenever an interrogative sentence used negatively is a mere 
form of language to express an affirmation, a is used in French as 
in English, and is expressed by un ; as in, 

Have you not a knife 1 meaning, You JN'avez-vous pas un couteau 1 

have a knife, have you not 1 

But if the sentence be intended to ascertain if really you have a knife 
or not, it becomes partitive, and a used instead of any is expressed by 
de; as, 

N'avez-vous pas de couteau % 

If the sentence be affirmative instead of being interrogative, a, 
if used in English, should be expressed by de before a noun, and by 
un before an adjective ; as in, 

No, sir, I have not a knife. Non, monsieur, je n'ai pas de couteau. 

I have not a single knife. Je n'ai pas un seul couteau. 

OF THE PLACE OF THE ADJECTIVE A, UN. 

256. Un is always placed before the noun which it qualifies, 
whether this noun is preceded or not by an adjective : 

I have a bird. J'ai un oiseau. 

You have a beautiful child. Vous avez un bel enfant. 

Exceptions. (1.) With the adjective tout, un is placed between that 
adjective and the noun which it qualifies ; as, 

I have spent a whole evening at your J'ai passe toute une soiree chez votre 
father's. pere. 

But if tout should be used as an adverb, meaning entirely, quite, 
&c, the adjective un might be placed indifferently before or after it ; 
as in, 

This is quite a different affair. C'est une tout autre affaire, or, C'est 

tout une autre affaire. 

(2.) Whenever the nouns monsieur, madame, and mademoiselle, are 
used with the pronoun tel, to designate a person in a vague and 
indefinite manner, corresponding in English to the expressions, 
Mister, Mistress, or Miss So-and-so, the adjective un is placed in 
French between the above nouns and the pronoun tel; as, Monsieur 
untel; Madame une telle ; Mademoiselle une telle. 



ADJECTIVE. 119 

3d. A used in English with the adjective such, always follows it ; 
but in French it is placed before that adjective ; as in, 

Such conduct is shocking. Une telle conduite est choquante. 

How can you associate with such a Comment pouvez-vous frequenter un 
man 1 tel homme 1 

OF CASES IN WHICH A OR OXE IS NOT EXPRESSED IN FRENCH. 

257. A or one is not expressed in French before the numerical 
adjectives hundred and thousand; as in, 

How many persons were there at the Combien de personnes y avait-il au bal 

party last night 1 One hundred. hier soir I Cent. 

I bought a diousand bushels of corn to- J'ai achete aujourdhui mille boisseaux 

day. de ble. . 

One, used as a pronoun in English, is not expressed in French in 
sentences like the following : 

If you wish for a dog, I can give you a Si vous desirez un chien, je peux vous 

pretty one. en donner un joh. 

This is a good one (speaking of a joke.) En voila une bonne. 

OF CASES IN WHICH A MAY BE EXPRESSED BY THE ARTICLE THE IN FRENCH. 

253. There are a few cases in which a is expressed by the article 
the in French ; as in, 

I wish you a good morning, or evening. Je vous souhaite le bon jour, or, le bon 

soir (idiomatical.) 
He has a large head. II a la tete grosse. 

He has a noble appearance. II a Pair distingue. 

But we say, very properly : 

I wish you a pleasant evening, or Je vous souhaite une agreable soiree 

morning. or matinee. 

He has a big nose, a large mouth and II aun grosnez, une grande bouche et 

an ugly chin. un vilain menton. 

However, the former expressions are more elegantly used than the 
latter, a always implying an idea of peculiarity which does not suit 
the meaning of the nouns head, nose, chin, &c, for a man has but 
one head, one nose, one chin, &c. 



QUESTIONS 



168. What is the nature of adjectives, and what functions do they perform 
in the language 1 

169. Do adjectives agree in number and gender with the nouns which they 
qualify, and have they not several degrees of signification 1 

170. What is die feminine termination of adjectives 1 



120 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

170. Do adjectives, ending in the masculine with an e mute, change theif 
termination in the feminine 1 

170. What are the exceptions to the preceding rule 1 

171. When an adjective ends with a vowel which is not an e mute, how does 
it form its feminine 1 What is the only exception 1 

172. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in an, ien, and on formed 1 
What are the exceptions 1 

172. What is the feminine of the adjectives benin and malin ? 

173. When an adjective does not end with n, how does it form its feminine, ag 
a general rule 1 

174 How is the feminine of adjectives ending in c formed 1 

174. How is the feminine of the adjective crud formed 1 

175. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in/ formed 1 

176. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in g formed 1 

177. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in el, eil, ol, ul, as, os, ot t 
formed 1 Mention the exceptions to the preceding rule. 

178. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in eur, and deriving from 
present participles, formed 1 

178. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in teur, and not derived from 
present participles, formed % 

178. Are there not some adjectives which, although deriving from present 
participles, form their feminine in trice ? Which are they 1 

178. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in erieur formed 1 

178. Are there not some few adjectives ending in eur which have no feminine 
termination % Which are they 1 

179. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in x formed 1 Mention the 
exceptions. 

180. Are there not five adjectives which have two masculine terminations, 
according to their qualifying nouns beginning with a consonant or a vowel? 
Which are they, and how do they form their feminine 1 

181. Are there not some adjectives which are only used in the masculine, and 
others in the feminine 1 Name some of them. 

182. What are the different kinds of numerical adjectives 1 

182. What are the cardinal numbers 1 Require the pupil to recite them. 

182. How are the ordinal adjectives formed from the cardinal 1 

182. What are the collective adjectives of number 1 

183. When speaking of the days of the month, do the French use the car- 
dinal or ordinal adjectives 1 

184. What is the peculiarity attached to the number eleven, onze ? 

185. When is the conjunction and, et, used in the formation of a numerical 
adjective 1 

186. Is the adjective one, un, used in French with the adjectives cent and 
mille ? 

187. What are the numerical adjectives used in music, poetry, games, &c. 1 

188. What are the distributive and proportional adjectives 1 

189. How is the plural formed in the adjectives 1 

189. Do adjectives ending in s or x in the singular, change their termination 
in the plural 1 

189. How is the plural of adjectives ending in au and al formed 1 

190. When do the adjectives vingt and cent take the sign of the plural 1 

190. When the adjectives cent and vingt are used instead of the ordina 
adjective centieme, do they take the plural % 

191. Does the adjective mille ever take the plural % How is it spelled when 
used in dating a letter or any other document 1 

191. When mille means a mile, does it take the plural 1 

192. Is the conjunction and, et, ever used in French, as a conjunction, in the 
formation of a numerical adjective 1 Why is it never used except in the case of 
vingt et un, trente et un, &G.1 

193. How is the plural of the adjectives universel and penitentiel formed 1 



ADJECTIVE. 121 

193. How is the plural of the adjectives ending in ant and ent formed 1 
1.93. Does the adjective tout keep the letter t in the plural 1 
193. Do not adjectives ending in al form their plural in several ways 1 
Which are they 1 

193. Are there not several adjectives ending in al which are plural in the 
masculine or the feminine alone 1 

194. What are the degrees of comparison in adjectives 1 

195. How is a comparison of equality formed in affirmative and negative 
sentences *? 

196. 197. How are comparisons of superiority or inferiority formed 1 Is the 
sign of the comparative repeated before each adjective 1 

197. How is than expressed in French, when used after more or less, employed 
as adverbs of comparison or quantity 1 

198. How are the comparative adjectives better, worse and less expressed in 
French 1 

198. How are the comparative adverbs better, worse and less expressed in 
French 1 

198. When are these words adjectives or adverbs 1 

199. How many kinds of superlatives are there % 
199. How is the superlative absolute formed 1 
199. How is the superlative relative formed 1 

199. Are the signs of these two kinds of superlatives repeated before each 
adjective 1 

200. When a superlative relative is placed before the noun which it qualifies, 
is the article the used once, or twice 1 When should the noun be placed before 
the superlative 1 

201. Is there any absolute rule in reference to the place of adjectives 1 

202. (2.) What is the place of adjectives expressing color, form, taste, flavor 
and sound 1 

202. (1.) What is the place of adjectives deriving from past participles 1 
202. (3.) What is the place of adjectives performing the part of nouns 1 
202. (4.) What is the place of adjectives expressing the point of view in 
which we consider persons and things 1 

202. (5.) What is the place of adjectives expressing the state of persons and 
thing.-, or referring to habits 1 

202. (6.) What is the place of adjectives expressing an outward or acci- 
dental modification 1 

202. (7.) What is the place of adjectives distinguishing objects by gender, 
species or sort 1 

202. (S.) What is the place of adjectives designating countries % 

203. What is the place of adjectives deriving from perfect participles 1 

204. What is the place of adjectives when they have some analogy with the 
noun which they qualify 1 What is their place when they have none 1 

205. In what case are many of the adjectives we have said should be placed 
after the noun, placed before 1 

206. What is the place of numerical adjectives 1 

207. Are there not a great number of adjectives which change entirely their 
signification by being placed before or after the noun 1 (Make the pupil men- 
tion those most generally used.) 

208. What is the termination of the adjectives which euphony requires to be 
placed after the noun 1 

209. When two or several adjectives qualify a noun, and one of them 
belongs to the class of those which should always follow it, where are they all 
placed 1 

210. When two or several adjectives qualify a noun, and each of them could 
indifferently precede or follow it, what consideration decides whether they 
should follow or precede it 1 

211. When two adjectives are used to describe the appearance of persona 
and things, where can they be placed 1 

11 



122 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

212. Can two adjectives follow each other in French, as they do in English, 
without being separated by a conjunction 1 

213. What are the relations of adjectives with other words 1 

214. Should the adjective agree in number and gender with the noun which 
it qualifies 1 

215. When an adjective is preceded or followed by several nouns of the same 
gender, how does it agree with these nouns 1 

216. When an adjective qualifies several nouns of a different gender, how 
does it agree with them 1 

216. When an adjective changes its termination in the feminine, should the 
masculine noun precede or follow th; ■'•- v/hi h is feminine 1 

217. When two nouns are ;; on 6us, and the adjective is intended to 
qualify only the last, how does the ; .. re agree 1 

218. When an adjective is precede d by several nouns united or not by the 
conjunction and, and only qualifies the oes it take the sign of the plural on 
account of the others 1 

219. When an adjective is precede." by t vc nouns separated by the con- 
junction or, and is only intended to qualify the ■ ~", does it take the sign of the 
plural 1 And how does it agree if it sh b< h nouns 1 

220. When an adjective is used with \ted by the preposition 
of, with which of these nouns should it agree '. 

221. When an adjective is used with two nouns separated by the con- 
junctions as well as, as, with, or any the same nature, how does it 
agree "? 

222. How does the adjective feu, late, agree, accordi g to its being preceded 
or followed by the article the ? 

223. How does the adjective nu, naked, agree, according to its being placed 
before or after a noun 1 

224. Same question in reference to the adjective demi, half, — does it ever 
take the plural 1 

225. Same question in reference to the adjectives, except'e, vu, y compris, 
&c. 

226. When an adjective is used as an adverb, to modify the signification of 
a verb, does it take the feminine or plural *? 

226. When two adjectives are used one aiier another, without being separated 
by a conjunction or by a comma, do they agree with the preceding noun 1 Why 
do they not agree 1 

227. How do the snd adjectives new-born, dead-drunk, &c, agree % 

228. 229. When the expression avoir Voir relates to persons or animals, if 
the adjective preceded by the noun air expresses either a moral faculty, a quality 
or a metaphysical distinction, does that adjective agree with the noun air, or the 
person or animal spoken of 1 

229. If the adjective designate a form, a manner of being merely physical, 
with what does that adjective agree 1 

230. When avoir Vcir : slates to things, with what does the following adjec- 
tive agree 1 

231. When an adjective is used in the superlative degree, does it still agree 
with the noun which it qualifies 1 

232. Do adjectives qualify indifferently nouns of tilings and persons 1 Hew 
can it be ascertained whether an adjective can qualify a noun of persons or 
things 1 

233. Are there not some adjectives which are not susceptible of comparison 1 
What should be their meaning 1 

234. When we wish to mention the dimensions of a thing, how should the 
(sentence be turned in French if the verb to be is used in English 1 

235. How should the sentence be turned if the verb to be is not used in 
English 1 

235. When a comparison is made between two persons or things, in reference 
to their size, how is the preposition by expressed in French 1 



ADJECTIVE. l~o 

236. When an adjective is used to qualify a noun, is it preceded or not by 
the article the ? 

236. When an adjective is used as a noun, does it take the article 1 

237. When a noun is accompanied by two adjectives expressing opposite 
qualification?, should the article be expressed before each 1 

238. When the adjectives express qualifications of a similar nature, should 
the article be repeated \ 

239. "When an adjective is prefixed to a proper name, either to express the 
quality of the person spoken of, or to distinguish that person from any other of 
the same name, is the article used before that adjective 1 

241. When the article is used with the adjective tout, where is it placed 1 

242. What part of speech have adjectives for their object 1 Are all adjec- 
tives followed by an object ? 

243. Can an adjective have indifferently for its object, a noun of things or 
persons ! 

244. When an adjective is used impersonally with the verb to be, what propo- 
sition does it govern in French 1 

245. When the adjective a, un, is accompanied by several nouns, when 
should it be repeated before each of them \ 

246. When several nouns are separated by the conjunction or, on, when is 
the adjective un repeated before each of them "? 

247. Same question, when adjectives are united by the conjunction and, et. 

248. When two adjectives are separated by the conjunction or, ou, when is 
the adjective un repeated before each of them 1 

249. When a noun preceded by a in English is used as the attribute of the 
verb to be. when is a expressed in French and when is it not 1 

250. When die adjective grand is used with a noun as the attribute of the 
verb to be, is a expressed in French 1 

251. When a is used in English before a noun used in apposition to another, 
is it expressed in French 1 

When a is used in English aker what before a noun, preceded or not by 
an adjective, is it expressed in French \ 

233. When a is used in English before a noun expressing measure or weight, 
how is it expressed in French 1 

254. When a is used in English before a noun expressing a period of time, 
how is it expressed in French 1 

255. When a is used in English before a noun preceded by an adjective, in 
an interrogative or affirmative sentence used negatively, when is a expressed in 
French by un or de ? 

255. If the sentence should be affirmative, instead of being interrogative, 
how should a be expressed either before a noun or an adjective 1 

256. What is the place of the adjective a, un, in French 1 What is the 
place of the adjective tin with the adjective tout ? 

256. (2.) What is the place of un with the nouns monsieur, madame, and 
mademoiselle, followed by die adjective tel ? 

256. (3.) What is the place of the adjective a in French, used with the 
word i 

257. Is a expressed in French before the words rent and mille ? 

257. Is one expressed in French after an adjective 1 

258. In what cases is a expressed in French by the article the ? Mentios 
the examples. 



124 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE PRONOUN. 

259. The Pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. 

Although this definition is applicable to some of the words called 
pronouns, yet there are some among them which would be better 
called adjectives, because they are never employed without being 
joined to nouns ; but we shall keep this denomination for all, because 
they are generally qualified by that appellation, and sometimes clear- 
ness is preferable to precision. 

The pronouns are of great service in languages ; they not only 
save repetitions which would be insupportable and hard, but they 
spread over the style a clearness, animation, variety, and grace, which 
would not exist without their assistance. 

In this passage, for instance, which we extract from the works of 
the Abbot Girard. 

The grammar ought to follow the II faut que la grammaire soit conduite 

genius of the language of which it par le genie de la langue qu'e/Ze 

treats ; its method ought to be clear traite ; que la methode en soit nette 

and facile ; it should not omit any of et facile ; qu'elle n'omette aucune 

the laws consecrated by good prac- des lois consacrees par l'usage ; et 

tice ; it should be definite, precise, que tout y soit exactement defini, 

and illustrated by examples, so that ainsi qu'eclaire par des exemples, 

ignorant people may learn it, and the afin que les ignorants puissent Z'ap- 

learned may approve it. prendre, et que les savants lui don- 

nent four approbation. 

The words elle, en, y, V , lui, leur, are pronouns, which replace 
the nouns grammaire and savant. If, instead of them, we repeat the 
words themselves, the sentence is not tolerable, and presents the most 
ridiculous specimen of style ; as, 

II faut que la grammaire soit conduite par le genie de la langue que la grammaire 
traite ; que la methode de la grammaire soit nette et facile ; que la gram- 
maire n'omette aucune des lois consacrees par l'usage ; et que tout dans la 
grammaire soit defini, ainsi qu'eclaire par des exemples, afin que les ignorants 
puissent apprendre la grammaire, et que les savants donnent a la grammaire 
l'approbation des savants. 

We shall divide the pronouns into six different classes : 

1. Personal Pronouns. 

2. Possessive " 

3. Relative " 

4. Absolute " 

5. Demonstrative " 

6. Indefinite " 



PRONOUN. 125 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

260. Personal pronouns are those which are used to designate 
persons and things. 

There are three persons ; 

The First is that who speaks. 

The Second is that who is spoken to 

The Third is that who is spoken of. 

Personal pronouns may be nominatives or objectives. 

OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, /, THOU, HE, SHE, IT, WE, YOU, THEY, USED 
AS NOMINATIVES IN SENTENCES WHICH ARE NOT INTERROGATIVE. 

261. When the pronouns I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, and they, are 
used simply as nominatives of the following verb, in sentences which 
are not interrogative, they are, in French, as in English, placed before 
the verb, and expressed as follows : 

Speaking of Persons. 

I speak, je parle. We speak. nous parlons. 

Thou speakest, tu paries You speak, vous parlez. 

He or she speaks, il or elle parle. They speak, Us or dies parlent. 

Speaking of Things. 
It is interesting, il est interessant. (Speaking of a book.) 

It is large enough, elle est assez grande. (Speaking of a carriage.) 

il pleut. (Used impersonally.) 

They are interesting, Us sont interessants. (Speaking of books.) 

They are large enough, elles sout assez grandes. (Speaking of carriages.) 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS NOMINATIVES IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

262. When a personal pronoun is used in an interrogative sen- 
tence, it is placed after the verb in simple ten&es, after the auxiliary 
in compound tenses, and is separated from either by a hyphen ; as in, 

Do I speak l . parle-Je ? Do we speak 1 parlons-nows ? 

Dost thou speak 1 paries-? u ? Do you speak 1 iparlez-vous ? 

Does he or she speak 1 parle-t-t7 or elle ? Do they speak 1 parlent-i7s or elles ? 

Is it interesting 1 est-il interessant 1 (Speaking of a book.) 

Is it large enough 1 est-elle assez grande 1 (Speaking of a carriage.) 

Does it rain 1 pleut-i7 ? (Used impersonally.) 

OF SEVERAL CASES IN WHICH PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS NOMINATIVES ARE 
PLACED AFTER THE VERB, ALTHOUGH THE SENTENCE IS NOT INTERROGATIVE. 

263. (I.) When the verb is in the subjunctive mood without a 
conjunction expressed before it ; as, 

May I with ray own eyes see the thun- Puisse-^'e de mes yeux voir tomber la 
der fall ! foudre ! 

11* 



Therefore, thus, 


aussi. 


Perhaps, 


peut-etre, 


Still, 


encore. 



126 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

(2.) When the verb forms a proposition which shows that the 
words of some person are referred to ; as, 

I shall be dissatisfied, said he, if you Je serai mecontent, dit-t7, si vous re- 
repeat my words. petez mes paroles. 

(3.) When the verb is preceded by any of the following adverbs : 

At least, for all 

that, &c, toujours. 

Vainly, en vain, vainement. 

At least, au moms, du moins. 

Therefore the king is very powerful. Aussi le roi est-z7 tres puissant. 

Perhaps we shall go to-morrow into Peut-etre irons-nous demain a la cam- 

the country. pagne. 

Still it is true that you did behave Encore est-il vrai que vous vous con- 
badly, dui sites tres mal. 

At least it is certain that he is a Toujours est-z7 certain que c'est un 

rogue. coquin. 

Vainly did he try to stop my horse. En vain essaya-t-z7 d'arreter mon 

cheval. 

At least it is certain that you have Du moins or au moins est-i7 certain que 

deceived me. vous m'avez trompe. 

This exception is not absolute, for it would not be a fault against 
the language to place the pronoun before the verb, but then the 
locution would be flat and deprived of grace and elegance. 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS NOMINATIVES IN SENTENCES EXPRESSING A 
STRONG FEELING OF WONDER, ADMIRATION, INDIGNATION, &c. 

264. Sentences expressing a strong feeling of wonder, admiration, 
indignation, or used emphatically, admit of several modes of con- 
struction,' in which the personal nominative pronouns are not used in 
French as they are in English. If a man, for instance, being innocent 
of the charge, were suspected of intending to betray the interest of 
his friend, and should exclaim, 

I would betray the interest of my friend ! No, never ! 

this sentence, in order to convey the state of feeling of the speaker, 
should be rendered as follows : 

Moi, trahir les inter&s de mes amis ! Non, jamais ! 

or, 

Moije trahirais les interns de mes amis ! Non, jamais ! 

or, 

Je trahirais les interets de mes amis, moi f Non, jamais ! 



PRONOUN. 127 

The first sentence is elliptical ; the words Je pourrais, I should be 
such a man as, are understood. The two others are merely emphatic, 
but have much force. 

The pronouns of the other persons, singular and plural, should be, 
toi, lui, elk, nous, vous, Us, elks, for, thou, he, she, we, you and they ; 
as, toi trahir, or tu trahirais ; lui or elk trahir, or il or elk trahirait ; 
nous trahir, or nous trahirions ; vous trahir, or vous trahiriez ; eux or 
elks trahir, or Us or elks trahiraient. 

In pronouncing- the above sentences, a strong emphasis should be 
laid on the pronouns ?noi, toi, &c. 

If a man who attaches much importance to his own opinion should 
say, 

You maintain that these doctrines are correct, and I pretend they are false, 

this sentence, in order to convey the state of his mind, should be 
rendered by, 

Vous soutenez que ces doctrines sont vraies, et moi,je pretends qu'elles sont fausses. 

The omission of the pronoun moi, would render the sentence flat 
and inexpressive. 

OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS I, THOU, HE, 4c, USED AFTER THE 
VERB TO BE IN ENGLISH, OR PRECEDING THE DEFECTIVE VERBS, WILL, 
SHALL, WOULD, COULD, 4c, OR ANY OTHER USED IN THEIR STEAD, IN ANSWER 
TO A QX'ESTIOX. 

265. Whenever the pronouns I, thou, he, &c, are used in English 
after the verb to be, they are considered in French as the attributes or 
objects of that verb, and expressed by the objective personal pronouns 
moi, toi, lui, elk, nous, vous, eux or elks ; as in, 

It is I who love you, and not he. C'est moi qui vous aime, et non pas lui. 

The second part of the sentence is elliptical, and signifies, It is not he, 
Ce n'est pas lui. 

It is thou who will do that. C'est toi qui feras cela. 

It will be he or she who will go to Ce sera lui ou die qui ira a la ville, 
town. &c. 

Sometimes the verb to be is not expressed, as is the case in 
answering questions with the defective verbs will, shall, could, &c. ; 
but the pronouns I, thou, he, her, &c, should be expressed as in the 
preceding cases, and the words will, shall, &c, be suppressed ; as in 



1:23 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Who will do that 1 I will. (For it Qui f'era cela 1 Moi. 

will be I who will do it.) 
Who has done that '? He has. (It is- Uui a fait cela 1 Lui, &c. 

he who has done it.) 

OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS FOLLOWED BY AN ADJECTIVE. 

266. When either of the personal pronouns /, thou, he, she, &c, is 
used before an adjective, it is still expressed in French by the corre- 
sponding objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; as in, 

T alone can do that. Moi seul peux faire cela. 

He, with six others, has raised this Lui septieme, a releve ce bateau, 
boat. 

These sentences are elliptical, and signify, It is I alone who, Sic, 
It is he who with, &c. ; the pronouns he, I, &c, are therefore 
objective, and should be expressed as such. 

OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS /, THOU, HE, SHE, &c, USED IN 
DISTRIBUTIVE SENTENCES. 

267. A sentence is called distributive when a fact having been, or 
being about to be, accomplished, that sentence expresses the part 
which each individual has taken or will take in it ; in such cases, the 
nominative pronouns I, thou, he, she, &c, used in English, are- still 
expressed in French by the objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, Sic, 
provided these pronouns are of different persons or genders ; as in, 

Your two brothers and mine will take Vos deux freres et le mien se chargent 
hold of this enterprise ; they will de 1'entreprise ; eux fourniront Par- 
furnish the money, and he will do the gent, et lui executera le travail, 
work. 

Your brother and sister were both Votre freie et votre sceur etaient pre- 

present when I fell ; he helped me sents quand je suis tombe ; lui m'a 

to get up, and she laughed at the aide a me relever, elle a ri de mon 



ace 



ident. accident. 



These sentences are still elliptical ; the verb to be is understood 
before the pronouns I, he, she, &c. ; they are then, in fact, objective 
pronouns, and should assume that character in French. 

OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS /, THOU, HE SHE, &c, USED IN 
EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES OR IN AN APOSTROPHE. 

268. The personal pronouns /, thou, he, she, &c, used in English 
in exclamative sentences or in an apostrophe, are expressed in French 
by the objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; as in, 

Thou whom I so dearly loved ! what Toi que j'aimais si tendrement ! qu'es 

has become of thee 1 tu done devenu 1 

He who so often betrayed me, why do Lui qui m'a si souvent trahie, pour 

I still love hi.n 1 quoi done l'aiine-je encore 1 



PRONOUN. 129 

OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS J, THOU, HE, SHE, &c, USED AFTER 
THAN AND AS IN A COMPARISON OF EQ.UALITY, INFERIORITY OR SUPERIORITY. 

269. When either of the personal pronouns 7, thou, he, &c., is used 
after than or as in a comparison of equality, superiority or inferiority, 
it is expressed in French by one of the corresponding objective pro- 
nouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; as in, 

You are not as handsome as I. Vous n'etcs pas aussi belle que moi. 

Your brother is better than he or she. Votre frere est meilleur que lui or elle. 
You are less rich than they. Vous etes moins riches qu'eux or dies. 

OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS I, THOU, HE, &c, FOLLOWED BY A 
RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

270. Whenever either of the personal pronouns I, thou, he, &c, is 
followed by a relative pronoun, which, being at the head of an inci- 
dental proposition, separates the nominative pronoun from the verb of 
which the pronoun is the subject, the pronouns I, thou, he, &c, are 
expressed in French by the objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; 
as in. 

He who is so poor now, has commanded Lui, qui est si pauvre aujourdhui, a or 
the armies of the republic. il a commande les armees de la re- 

publique. 

But when the relative pronoun comes after the personal pronoun 
of the third person singular or plural, and does not stand at the head 
of an incidental sentence, so that no comma should be placed between 
the two pronouns, the English personal pronoun becomes demon- 
strative in French, as meaning that person who, and is expressed by 
one of the following words : 



Celui, 


for 


he, 


Celle, 




she, 


Ceux, 


tt 


they, (Masculine,) 


Celles, 


a 


they, (Feminine,) 



He who thinks himself happy, is always Celui qui se croit heureux, est toujours 

sure to be so. sur de l'etre. 

Thev are mistaken who think that hap- Ceiix qui croient que le bonheur con- 

piness consists, in riches. siste dans les richesses, se trompent. 

(See the rules relating to these pronouns, paragraph 372.) 

(See the chapter on demonstrative pronouns, to ascertain how the 

personal nominative pronouns he, she, it and they, should be expressed 

when used as nominatives of the verb to be, according to the verb 

being followed either by a definite noun, a personal pronoun, a verb, 



130 FRENCH GBAMMAR. 

an adjective, or a noun used indefinitely, that is to say, without being 
preceded by the or a, or an adverb.) 

HOW THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS JE, TU, IL, &c, J, THOU, HE, 4c, 
SHOULD BE USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES, IN ORDER THAT NO 
AMBIGUITY SHOULD EXIST IN REFERENCE TO THE NOUN TO WHICH THESE 
PRONOUNS RELATE. 

271. There can never be any ambiguity or doubt in regard to the 
noun which the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, 
singular or plural, represent ; but it is not the same with those of the 
third person ; the following rule must then be observed : 

The nominative pronouns il, elle, Us, elles, must always refer to a 
noun, either nominative or objective, employed definitely ; but never 
to both, nor to a noun taken in an indefinite meaning ; thus the fol- 
lowing sentence is correct : 

Nature, as a minister of the irrevo- Ministre des ordres irrevocables de 

cable decrees of God, never deviates Dieu, la nature ne s'ecarte jamais 

from the laws which it has received des lois qu'e/Ze a recues de lui ; elle 

from him ; it does not alter in any n'altere en rien, les plans qui lui ont 

way his plans, and in all it accom- ete trace?, et dans tout ce quelle. 

plishes, it shows the seal of the accomplit, elle presente le sceau de 

Almighty, L'Eternel, 

because the personal pronoun elle refers to nature, a nominative 
used in a definite manner. 

Slavery does not prevent the happiness L'esclavage n'empeche pas le bonheur 
of the slave, when he has not enjoyed de Vesclave, quand il n'a pas joui du 
the gift of liberty. bienfait de la liberte. 

This sentence is correct, because il refers to esclave, which is used 
as the object of the noun bonheur, and is taken definitely. 
But the following sentence, 

Racine has imitated Euripides in all Racine a imite Euripide dans tout ce 
that he has beautiful in his Phedra, qu'iZ a de plus beau dans sa Phedre, 

is incorrect, because il is used after two nouns, one being nominative, 
the other objective, and may relate to either Racine or Euripides ; the 
phrase then is ambiguous, and therefore incorrect. 
This sentence, also, is incorrect : 

You have the right of chase, and I Vous avez droit de chasse, et je le trouve 
think it well founded, fonde, or, il est fonde selon moi, 

because, in the first mode of translation, le, the objective personal 
pronoun, and in the second, il, the nominative personal pronoun, refer 



PRONOUN. 131 

to droit dc chasse, which is used indefinitely, not being preceded by an 
article. 

The following- sentence is also incorrect, 

No peace for the wicked ; he seeks it, Nulle paix pour le mechant ; il la 
it (lies. cheiche, die fuit. 

been use la, the objective, and elle, the nominative pronouns, refer to 
nulle paix, when the meaning of the sentence requires that it should 
relate to paix in the affirmative. 

This rule, which results from the necessity of clearness, so much 
required in the French language, is one of the most difficult in its 
application, and requires the constant attention of the writer. 

In the impersonal verbs, it, il, does not seem to take the place of a 
noun, as in the following phrases : 

It rains, Il pleut, 

Many events have passed, II s'est passe bien des evenements, 

but the first sentence is elliptical, and means, le del (il) pleut, and the 
second could be constructed in this way : bien des evenements (il) se 
sonf. passes. 

OF SEVERAL PERSONAL PRONOUNS JOINED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET, 
AND USED TOGETHER, AS NOMINATIVES OF THE FOLLOWING VERB. 

. When, instead of one, there are several pronouns of different 
persons used as nominatives, they are expressed in French by the 
objective pronouns mot, toi, lui, elle, &c, and the following rules 
must be observed : 

The person who speaks is always mentioned the last, the person 
addressed is named iirst, and the verb is generally preceded by the 
personal nominative pronoun of the first person plural, nous, ice, if 
there is a pronoun of the first person among these employed as nom- 
inatives ; as, 

Yon and I will go hunting to-morrow. Vous et moi t nmis irons demain a la 

chasse. 

If there is no pronoun of the first person among the nominatives, 
the verb is generally preceded by the nominative pronoun of the 
second person plural, vous, you; as, 

You and he will go hunting to-morrow. Vous et lui, mus irez demain a la 

chasse. 

If the two pronouns used as nominatives are both of the third 






132 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

person singular and plural, the verb is put in the third person plural, 
without being preceded by the personal plural pronoun of the third 
person ; as, 

He and they will go hunting to-morrow. Lui et tux iront demain a la chasse. 

Tn the first and second of these three sentences, the verbs are pre- 
ceded by the pronouns nous and vous, because those verbs having 
each two nominatives of different persons, usage has decided that 
the first person should be the noblest of the three and the second 
nobler than the third. We have said generally, in speaking of the 
use of the pronouns nous and vous, because some of our best writers 
have sometimes dispensed with them, but it is better to use them. 

In the third sentence, the two nominative pronouns being of the 
same person, it is sufficient that the verb should be in the third person 
plural, to agree with both. 

If the pronouns of the three persons, singular or plural, should be 
employed as nominatives, the verb should be employed in the first 
person plural, and generally preceded by the personal pronouns of that 
person ; as, 

He, you and I, will go hunting to-mor- Lui, vous et moi, nous irons demain a 
row. la chasse. 

Or, 

Nous irons demain a la chasse, lui, vous et moi. 

But the order in which the pronouns are placed in regard to each 
other should never be altered. 

The same rule is applied when a noun is employed with one or 
more pronouns as nominatives of a verb ; as in, 

My father and T will go to town this Mon pere et moi, nous irons, or simply, 
evening. irons, ce soir a la ville. 

My sister and you are very pretty. Ma sceur et vous, vous etes, or simply, 

etes, trds jolies. 

My mother, you and I, will set out to- Ma mere, vous et moi, nous partirons, 
night. or simply, partirons, cette nuit. 

My servant and he are at work in the Mon domestique et lui travaillent dans 
fields. les champs. 



REPETITION OF PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS. 

273. Our best writers differ so much in regard to the repetition of 
personal nominative pronouns, that the rules we are going to give 



PRONOUN. 133 

should not be considered as absolute ; but, however, by conforming to 
them, a foreigner will always speak or write correctly. 

OF THE REPETITION OF PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST AND 
SECOND PERSON SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

274. Whenever two or more verbs, having for their nominatives a 
pronoun of the first or second person, singular or plural, are in the 
same tense, both affirmative, and separated by the conjunction and, et, 
the personal nominative pronoun is repeated or not — it is a matter of 
taste ; as in, 

I love and admire him. Je I'aime et I'admire, or, Je l'aime et 

je I'admire. 

If the verbs are both negative, and separated by the conjunction 
neither, ni, the personal nominative pronoun is not repeated ; as in, 

I neither love nor esteem her. Je ne l'aime ni ne l'estime. 

When the verbs are separated by the conjunction or, ou, alone, the 
pronoun may not be repeated ; as in, 

Whether I love or detest her, what is Que je l'aime ou la deteste, qu'est ce 
it to you 1 que cela vous fait 1 or, Queje l'aime 

ou je la deteste, qu'est ce que cela 
vous fait 1 

But if the conjunction ou is not used alone, the pronoun ought to 
be repeated ; as in, 

Que je I'aime ou que je la deteste, qu'est-ce que cela vous fait 1 
I do not know whether I love or hate Je ne sais si je l'aime ou si je la hais 
her. 

Whenever the verbs are not in the same tense, or the same form, 
if the first has an object which is not a personal pronoun, or if 
they are separated by any other conjunction but and, or, and neither, 
the personal nominative pronoun should be repeated ; as in, 

I have just arrived and will set out to- Je mens d'arriver et je repartirai de- 
morrow, main. 

You are young (person) and probably Vous etes jeune et probablement vous 

love glory (action.) aimez lagloire. 

I extended my arms as to embrace the J'etendais les bras comme pour embras- 

horizon, and I found but the empti- ser l'horizon, et je ne saisissais que le 

ness of the atmosphere. vide des airs. 

You please everybody, because you Vous plaisez a tout le monde, parceque 

have as much modesty as wit. vous avez autant de modestie que 

d'esprit. 

I hate him, but I many him because it Je le hais, mais je l'epouse parceque 

is my father's wish. e'est la volonte de mon pere. 

When passing from the affirmative to the negative, the pronoun 
12 



134 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

may not be repeated, but it should when passing from the negative to 
the affirmative ; as in, 

I fear God, dear Abner, and have no Je crains Dieu, cher Abner, et n'ai pas 

odier fear. d'autre crainte. 

You have no wings, and you wish to fly. Tu n'as point d'ailes, et tu veux voler. 

OF THE REPETITION OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD 
PERSON SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

The preceding rules are all applicable to the pronouns of the third 
person singular and plural, except in the following cases. 

275. (L) Whenever the verbs are not in the same tense, the repe- 
tition of the nominative pronoun is facultative ; as in, 

He arrived this morning and will start // est arrive ce matin et repartira (or il 
again to-morrow. repartira) demain. 

276. (2.) When several verbs following each other have different 

objects, the pronouns should be repeated whenever the object changes, 

except before the last, if it is preceded by the conjunction and, et; as 

in, 

He takes a hatchet, cuts down the II prend une hache, il coupe le mat, le 

mast, throws it into the sea, calls jette a la mer, il m'appelle par mon 

me by name and invites me to follow nom et ?n'invite a le suivre. 
him. 

The verbs takes and cuts not having the same object, the pronoun 
he is repeated before the last ; cuts and throws having the same 
object, mast, he is not repeated before the second verb ; it is repeated 
before calls, because the object changes and is suppressed before 
invites, which is the last, on account of the conjunction and being used 
before it. 

277. (3.) When plural verbs follow each other and we wish to 
suppress the conjunction and before the last, so as to give more power 
to the meaning of the sentence, the pronouns should be repeated ; as, 

Deceitful, cunning, hypocritical, dan- Fourbes, adroits, hypocrites, danger- 
gerous, they flatter, caress and sur- eux, Us flattent, Us caressent, Us en- 
round with enticements. vironnent de seductions. 

278. (4.) If the last verb be united to the preceding by the con- 
junction and, which is itself followed by a long incidental sentence, 
the pronoun should be repeated before it ; as, 

He rushes upon his enemy, and after l£ fond sur son enneini, et apres Vavoir 

having seized him with a victorious renverse d'une main victorieuse, il le 

hand, he throws him down, as the renverse comme le cruel Aquilon abat 

severe Aquilon would the golden har- les moissons dorees qui couvrent la 

vest which covers the plains. campagne. 



pronoun. lOo 

279. (5.) Although the first verbs are used without pronouns, if 
the last is separated from them by a long incidental sentence, fol- 
lowing the conjunction and, this last verb should take the pronoun ; 
as in, 

Excited by an iusatiable avidity, blind- Excite par l'insatiable avidite, aveugle 

ed by ambition still more insatiable, par l'ambition plus insatiable encore, 

he renounces all feelings of humanity, il renonce aux sentiments d'humanite, 

turns his strength against himself, tourne ses forces contre lui-meme, 

and in attempting die destruction of cherche a s'entre-detruire, se dttruit 

his fellow-men, in fact destroys him- en effet, et, apres I es jours de sang ct 

self; and after those days of earn- de carnage, lorsque la fumeedelagloirc 

age, when die smoke of glory has s'est dissipee, il voit d'un ceil triste, la 

vanished, he sees with an eye of sad- terre devastee, les arts ensevelis, les 

ness, the land devastated, the arts nations dispersees, les peuples af- 

buried in oblivion, the nations scat- faiblis, son propre bonheur ruiue, et 

tered, tb.e people weakened, his own sa puissance reelle aneantee. 
happiness destroyed, and his real 
power annihilated. 

In this sentence, the first verbs, tourne, cherche, se detruit, have no 
pronouns, but on account of the long incidental sentence which fol- 
lows et, euphony requires that the pronoun should be used before the 
last verb, voit. 

We should repeat, that the preceding rules are not absolute, but as 
foreigners are deprived of this instinctive feeling w T hich a native has, 
and which tells him when he may with propriety follow this or that 
inspiration, they should have a guide, and by following these rules, 
they will always be enabled to write correctly. 



OF PERSONAL PEOXOUXS USED OBJECTIVELY. 

280. The English personal pronouns used objectively are the fol- 
lowing: me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, them. These pronouns are 
expressed in French in different ways, according to their being used 
as direct or indirect objects of the verbs. 

A pronoun or a noun is the direct object of a verb, whenever it can 
be used with that verb without the assistance of a preposition, and 
make sense with it. 

A pronoun or a noun is the indirect object of a verb, when it cannot 
be used with that verb without the help of a preposition so as to make 
sense with it. 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS DIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB. 

281. Whenever personal pronouns are used as direct objects of a 
verb, in a sentence which is either affirmative, negative, or inter- 



136 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



rogative, they are placed before that verb in all its tenses, except the 
imperative mood used affirmatively, in which case they follow the 
verb in French as they do in English ; and they are expressed as fol- 
lows : me, me; thee, te; him, le; her, la; it, le or la; us, nous; you, 
vous ; them, les ; as in, 



He sees me, 

I see thee, 

We see him, 

You see her, 

You see it, (speaking of a book,) 

He sees it, (speaking of a watch,) 

You see us, 

I see you 



he me sees, 
I thee see, 
we him see. 
you her see. 
you it see, 
he it sees, 
you us see, 
Iyou 



il me voit. 

je te vois. 
nous le voyons. 
vous la voyez. 
vous le voyez. 
il la voit. 
vous mows voyez. 
je vous vois. 
nous les voyons. 



x »cc juu, x yuu see, 

We see them, (speaking of persons and things,) we them see 

282. The same English objective pronouns, when employed with a 
verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and then placed after 
that verb, are expressed in the following manner : me, moi; thee, toi; 
him, le; her, la; it, le or la; us, nous ; you, vous; them, les; as in, 



Love me, 


aimez-wioi. 


Love it, 


aimez-Ze or la. 


Love thyself, 


aime-foi. 


Love us, 


aimez-nows. 


Love him, 


aimez-Ze. 


Love yourself, 


aimez-wMs. 


Love her, 


aimez-Za. 


Love them, 


aimez-Zes, (speaking 
of persons and things.) 



By comparing these pronouns with those which precede them, it 
will be seen that the only difference between them is in the first and 
second person singular, the other being expressed by the same words 
in either case. 

Whenever a verb governs, without a preposition, a pronoun and a 
noun united by the conjunction el, that verb should be preceded by a 
plural objective pronoun of the same person as the pronoun expressed 
in English, and followed by the noun and pronoun which it governs ; 
in which case, this pronoun should be expressed by one of the fol- 
lowing words : moi, toi, lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, elles ; as in, 

Your father knows me and my brother Votre pere nous connait tres bien mon 

very well. frere et moi. 

I hate them and all their friends. Je les hais eux et tous leurs amis. 

I blame you and your sister very much. Je vous blame beaucoup, vous et votre 

sceur 

But if the noun and pronoun were separated by the conjunctions 
ou or ni, the objective pronoun placed before the verb should be 
omitted ; as in, 



I neither love him or his father. 
I will take you or your brother. 



Je n'aime ni lui ni son pere. 
J'emmenerai votre frere ou vous. 



PRONOUN. 137 

or PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS INDIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB. 

283. Whenever a personal pronoun is used as the indirect object 
of a verb, the preposition governed by that verb is either the prepo- 
sition to, H, or some other; these two cases should be examined sep- 
arately ; the pronoun being expressed in a different manner in each. 

OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS INDIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB GOVERNING 
THE PREPOSITION TO, A. 

284. When a personal pronoun is employed as the indirect object of 
a verb governing the preposition to, a, in a sentence which is either 
affirmative, negative, or interrogative, the general rule is, that the 
pronoun should still be placed before the verb in all tenses except in 
the imperative mood used affirmatively, the preposition to be omitted 
in French, and the pronouns rendered by: to me, me; to thee, te; to 
him and to her, lui; to it, y; to us, nous; to you, vous; to them, 
(speaking of things,) y ; to them, (speaking of persons,) leur ; as 
follows : 



You speak to me, 

I speak to thee, 

You speak to hiui or to 

her, 
You do not pay attention 

to it, 
He speaks to us, 
I speak to you, 
You speak to them, 
You do not pay attention 

to them, (speaking of 

things,) 



you (to me) speak, 

I (to thee) speak, 

you (to him or to her; 

speak, 
you (to it) do not pay 

attention, 
he (to us) speaks, 
I (to you) speak, 
you (to them) speak, 
you (to them) do not pay 

attention, 



vous me parlez. 
je te parle. 
vous lui parlez. 

vous y faites attention. 

il nous parle. 
je vous parle. 
vous leur parlez. 
vous n'y faites pas atten- 
tion. 



285. The same English objective pronouns, when employed with a 
verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and then placed after 
that verb, are expressed in the following manner : to me, moi; to thee, 
toi ; to him and to her, lui; to it, y; to us, nous; to you, vous; to 
them, (speaking of persons,) leur; to them, (speaking of things,) y; 
as in, 

Speak (to me,) parlez-77ior. Speak (to him) or 

Speak (to thyself,) parle-toi. (to her,) parlez-lui. 

Pay attention (to it,) faites-?/ attention. Speak (to us,) parlez-nows. 

Speak (to yourself,) parlez-uows. Speak (to them,) parlez-Zewr. 

Pay attention (to them,) (speaking of things,) faites-y attention 



By comparing these pronouns with those which go before the verb, 
it will be seen that they are expressed by the same words, except in 
the first and second person singular. 

To this general rule, which requires that personal objective pro- 
12* 



I3S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

nouns governed by the preposition to should be placed before the verb, 
and the preposition omitted, there are three exceptions, which we will 
examine separately. 

OF REFLECTED VERBS GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION TO. 

286. Whenever a verb is reflected in French, although it may not 
be so in English, and governs the preposition to, d,, the preposition as 
well as the pronoun which it precedes, are both placed after that verb 
in all its tenses and moods, whether affirmative or negative, and 
expressed as follows : to me, d, moi; to thee, & tot; to him, h lui; to 
her, it elle; to us, ti nous; to you, d, vous ; to them, (masculine,) d 
eux ; to them, (feminine,) a elles. [To it and to them, (speaking of 
things,) are, as in the preceding case, expressed by y placed before 
the verb ;] as in, 

You trust me, you yourself trust to me, vous vous fiez d moi. 

I trust thee, I myself trust to thee, je me fie d toi. 

He trusts him, he himself trusts to him, il se fie d lui. 

He trusts her, he himself trusts to her, il se fie a elle. 

I trust it, I myself to it trust, je m'y fie. 

You trust us, you yourself trust to us, vous vous fiez d nous. 

We trust you, . we ourselves trust to you, nous nous fions a vous. 

They trust them, They themselves trust to ils se fient d eux (masc.) a 

them, elles (fem.) 

I trust them, (speaking I myself to them trust, je m'y fie. 
of things,) 

OF VERBS WHICH, BEING USED IN A CERTAIN SIGNIFICATION, REQ.UIRE THE 
PREPOSITION TO AND THE PRONOUN WHICH IT GOVERNS TO BE PLACED 
AFTER THEM. 

287. There are verbs and verbal expressions which being used in a 
certain meaning, require the preposition to and the pronoun which it 
governs to be placed after them, and to be expressed as they are in 
the preceding chapter ; they are the following : 

Tenser, to think, (meaning to have one's mind occupied about a 
person or thing ;) as in, 

I think of you, I think to you, Je pense d vous. 

But when penser signifies to have an opinion about a person or thing, 
it governs the preposition of, de; as in, 

What do you think of me 'J Que pensez-vous de moi 1 

Songer and rever having the same meaning as penser in the first case 
as in, 

I think of you from morning to night. Je songe or je reve d vous du matin au 



PRONOUN. 139 

But when river and songer signify to dream, they both govern the 
preposition of, de; as in, 

I dreamed of you the whole night. i'ai reve de vous toute la nuit. 

Venir, to come, used in its natural meaning, and implying an idea 
of motion of the body ; as in, 

He came to me and spoke to me in II vint d moi et me parla en ces termes. 
this way. 

But when venir is used metaphorically, not implying a motion of the 
body, the pronoun is placed before the verb ; as in, 

An idea came to my mind. II me vint une idee. 

Alter, to go, follows the same rule as venir ; as in, 

I went to him and shook hands with 3'allai a luiet lui serrai la main. 

him, 
•This dress does not fit you well. Cette robe ne vous va pas bien. 

Etre, when signifying to belong, or implying an idea of right or 
duty ; as in, 

This book belongs to me. Ce livre est a moi. 

It is time to play. C'est d moi a jouer. 

It is mine to command and yours to C'est d moi de commander et d vous 
obey. d'obeir. 

En appeler, to appeal to ; as in, 

I appeal to you from this decision. 3 'en appelle d vous de cette decision. 

Avoir affaire, to have business with ; as in, 

Come, I have business with you. Venez, j'az affaire d vous. 

Avoir recours, to have recourse ; as in, 

If I am ever in trouble, I will have Si je me trouve jamais dans l'embarras, 
recourse to you. yaurai recours d vous. 

Prendre garde, to mind ; as in, 
Mind him or he will deceive you. Prenez garde d lui ou il vous trompera. 

Faire attention, to pay attention ; as in, 

Why do you never pay attention to me. Pourquoi ne /at'f es-vous jamais attention 

d moi. 

There may be some few more expressions of the same kind, but 
they are very seldom used. 



140 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 

OF VERBS WHICH, GOVERNING THE PREPOSITON TO, HAVE FOR THEIR OBJECTS 
MORE THAN ONE PRONOUN, OR A PRONOUN AND A NOUN. 

288. When a verb governs more than one pronoun, or a pronoun 
and a noun, with the preposition to, the several pronouns, or the 
pronouns and the noun, should all be placed after the verb, and the 
preposition to repeated before each ; as in, 

I speak to you and him. Je parle d vous et d lui. 

I spoke both to him and his father. J'ai parle d lui et d sonpere. 



REMARKS ON THE FOUR PRECEDING CHAPTERS. 

289. It happens very often in English that the preposition to is not 
expressed with the verb, when in fact that verb requires it ; hence 
arises a great difficulty for foreigners, whether they should use the 
dative or the accusative case with those classes of verbs ; in order to 
get over this difficulty, it must be remembered that in French a 
verb cannot stand in the same relation with two nouns or two 
pronouns, unless they are united by a conjunction ; thus the following 
expressions, 

I told your father a good story , I will pay your mother a visit, 

or any other of the same kind, cannot be translated literally in French, 
because the two nouns father and story are used in the accusative case 
with the verb to tell, as well as mother and visit with the verb to pay, 
without being united by a conjunction. But by analyzing the sen- 
tence, it is always easy to discover before which of the two objects 
the preposition to should be placed ; for if I ask, What have you told? 
the answer is, A story. To whom 1 To your father. What have 
you paid ? A visit. To whom ? To your mother. 
Therefore, in the following sentences, 

I told him a story, I paid her a visit, 

him and her stand for to him and to lier, and are expressed accordingly. 

Je lui ai dit une histoire, Je lui ai fait une visite, 

and not, 

Je Z'ai dit une histoire, Je Z'ai fait une visite. 

There are many cases, however, which an American or an Eng- 



PHONOUN. 141 

lishman will not so easily analyze as the preceding ; let us take the 
verb to permit, for instance : the genius of the English language 
admits of the following expression, To permit a person to do a thing. 
This cannot be said in French, because to permit signifies to give per- 
mission, which requires the use of the preposition to after it ; thus we 
should say in French, To permit to a person to do a thing; the fol- 
lowing sentence, therefore, 

I permitted him to go to the theatre, 

should be expressed by, 

Je lui (to him) permis d'aller au theatre, 

and not. 

Je le (him) permis d'aller au theatre. 

We also say, to permit a thing to a person; therefore the following 
sentence, 

My physician allows me to eat fish, 

could be rendered by, 

Mon medecin me (to me) permet le poisson, 

or, 

Mon medecin me (to me) permet de manger du poisson. 

We will now examine a few verbs which, presenting the same 
difficulty, can be properly used by English pupils, by reasoning by 
analogy, with the verb to permit. 

To please signifies to be agreeable, which cannot dispense with the 
preposition to before its object ; we should say, then, instead of, You 
please me, you please to me, vous me (to me) plaisez. 

To pardon signifies to grant pardon, which requires to before a 
noun of person; we should say, then, instead of, I pardon you, I 
grant pardon to you, Je vous (to you) pardonne; but we also say in 
French, To pardon a fault to a person. Therefore the following 
expressions, 

I pardon him for having deceived me, I forgive you for your past crimes, 

should be rendered by, 

Je lui (to him) pardonne de m'avoir Je wus (to you) pardonne vos crimes 
trompe, passes. 



142 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

To answer signifies, to make an answer to a person or a thing ; 
therefore, 

I answered him, to come immediately, I have answered your letter, 

should be expressed by, 

Je lui (to him) repondis de venir desuite, J'ai repondu a votre lettre. 

These examples are sufficient to put a foreigner on his guard in 
cases similar to the few we have just given ; a good dictionary will 
always tell him whether the verb he wants to use is active or neuter, 
and what preposition it governs. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS INDIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB 
WITH ANY PREPOSITION EXCEPT THE PREPOSITION TO. 

290. Whenever a verb has a personal pronoun for its object, -and 
governs any other preposition than the preposition to, that preposition 
and the pronoun should be placed after the verb in French, as in 
English, and the pronouns expressed as follows : Me, mot ; thee, toi ; 
him, lui; her, elle ; us, nous; you, vous ; them, (masc.) eux, (fern.) 
elles ; [we will hereafter speak of the pronouns it and them, speaking 
of things;] as in, 

He speaks of me. II parle de moi. 

I will go with thee. J'irai avec toi. 

1 cannot go there without him. Je ne puis pas y aller sans lui. 

I will know it by her. Je le saurai par elle. 

You are angry with us. Vous etes fache contre nous. 

I shall be there before you* J'y serai avant vous. 

I came after them. Je vins apres eux, or elles. 

This rule has no exceptions, except in the case of the pronouns it 
and them, (speaking of things,) used with the preposition of, when 
they are both expressed by en, which precedes the verb in all its 
tenses, except in the imperative mood used affirmatively ; as in, 

I spoke of it (or of them) half an J 'era parlais il y a une demi-heure. 

hour ago. 
Speak of it now, if you please. Parlez-m a present, je vous prie. 

We will hereafter devote a whole chapter to the pronoun it when 
preceded by a preposition which cannot be contracted with that 
pronoun, as in the word en. 



PRONOUN. 143 

OF THE P£RSOx\AL PRONOUNS HIM, HER, AND THEM, FOLLOWED BY 
A RELATIVE PRONOUN, PRECEDED OR NOT BY A PREPOSITION. 

291. (1.) Whenever the personal pronouns him, her and them, are 
followed by a relative pronoun, preceded or not by a preposition, they 
sometimes become in French demonstrative pronouns, signifying that 
person or those persons, and are then expressed by, celui, him ; celle, 
her; ceux, them, (masculine,) celles, them, (feminine ;) as in, 

I have been deceived by her whom I J'ai ete trompe par celle que j'aimais le 

loved the most. plus. 

Put yourself in the place of him to Mettez-vous a la place de celui a qui 

whom you would do an injury. vous voulez faire une injure. 

292. (2.) But when the pronouns him, her and them, are not used 
in the sense of that person or those persons, and are only employed 
instead of a noun of person, singular or plural, they retain their 
character of personal pronouns, the relative pronoun which follows 
them forms an incidental proposition with the following verb, and 
they are expressed as objective pronouns by lui, elle, eux, elles ; as in, 

I have been deceived by her, whom I J'ai ete trompe par elle, que j'aimais 

loved so much. tant. 

I was betrayed by them, whom I J'ai ete trahi par eux, en qui j'avais 

trusted so much. tant de confiance. 

293. (3.) Should the personal pronoun be the direct object of the 
verb, that personal pronoun should be expressed twice, — once before 
the verb, the second time before the relative pronoun with which it 
forms the incidental proposition ; as in, 

I love him still who has betrayed me Je Z'aime encore lui qui m'a trahi tant 
so many times. de fois, 

294. (4.) But if the relative pronoun should not form an incidental 
proposition with the following verb, the objective pronoun placed 
before the verb would act as an antecedent for that pronoun, and its 
reduplication be unnecessary; as in, 

I see them advancing in good order. Je les vois qui s'avancent en bon ordre, 



OF REFLECTED PRONOUNS. 



295. Objective pronouns, when they are in the same number and 
person as the nominative of the verb of which they are the objects, 
are called by grammarians reflected pronouns ; they are expressed in 



144 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



English by myself, thyself, himself, &c. Those pronouns, in French, 
vary according to their being placed before or after the verb. 

OF REFLECTED PRONOUNS USED WITH ACTIVE VERBS, AND NEUTER VERBS 
GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION TO. 

296. Whenever a reflected verb is active, or, being neuter, governs 
the preposition to, the reflected pronouns are placed before that verb, 
in all its tenses, except in the imperative mood used affirmatively, the 
preposition to is omitted, and they are expressed as follows : Myself, or 
to myself, me ; thyself, or, to thyself, te ; himself, herself, itself, or, to 
himself, to herself, to itself, se ; ourselves, or, to ourselves, nous ; your- 
selves, or, to yourselves, vous ; themselves, or, to themselves, se; as in, 



I love myself, 
Thou lovest thyself, 
He, or she, loves himself 

or herself, 
We love ourselves, 
You love yourself, or 

yourselves, 
They love themselves, 
I speak to myself, 
Thou speakest to thyself, 
He speaks to himself, 
She speaks to herself, 
We speak to ourselves, 
You speak to yourselves, 
They speak to themselves, 



I (myself) love, 
thou (thyself) lovest, 
he, or she, (himself or 

herself) loves, 
we (ourselves) love, 
you (yourself, or your- 
selves) love, 
they (themselves) love, 
I (to myself) speak, 
thou (to thyself) speakest, 
he (to himself) speaks, 
she (to herself) speaks, 
we (to ourselves) speak, 
you (to yourselves) speak, 
they (to themselves) speak, 



je mairae. 
tu f'aimes. 

il or elle s'aime. 
nous nous aimons. 

vous vous aimez. 
ils s'aiment. 
je me parle. 
tu te paries, 
il se parle. 
elle se parle. 
nous nous parlons. 
vous vous parlez. 
ils or elles se parlent. 



We shall speak of the reflected pronouns itself, themselves, (speak- 
ing of things,) and oneself, in a separate chapter. 

297. The same English reflected pronouns, when employed with a 
verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, are placed after that 
verb, and expressed as follows : Thyself, or, to thyself, toi ; ourselves, 
or, to ourselves, nous ; yourself and yourselves, or, to yourself and to 
yourselves, vous ; as in, 



Love thyself, 

Let us love ourselves, 

Love yourself or yourselves, 

Speak to thyself, 

Let us speak to ourselves, 

Speak to yourself, 



A\me-toi. 

Aimons-nows. 

Aimez-wws. 

Parle-toi. 

Parlons-nous. 

Parlez-vous. 



OF REFLECTED PRONOUNS USED WITH ANY OTHER PREPOSITION THAN THE 
PREPOSITION TO. 

298. Whenever the pronouns myself, thyself, &c, are preceded by 
any other preposition than the preposition to, d,, in French, whatever 
may be that preposition in English, they are expressed as follows : 
Myself, moi or moi-meme ; thyself, toi or toi-mhrve ; himself, lui or 



PRONOUN. 



145 



hu-meme ; herself, elk or elle-meme ; ourselves, nous or nous-memes ; 
yourself, vous or vous-meme ; yourselves, voiis or vous-memes ; them- 
selves, (masc.) eux or eu-x-memes, (fem.) elles or elles-memes. 

The word meme, meaning self, should never be used with the pro- 
noun except when an ambiguity would arise by employing the pronoun 
alone, or where the verb is emphatically used ; as in, 

Why do you always speak so much of Pourquoi parlez-vous toujours tant de 
yourself. vous ? (No ambiguity and no em- 

phasis.) 
Your sisters have too good an opinion Vos soeurs ont trop bonne opinion 
of themselves. d'elles mimes. (Ambiguity without 

meme.) 

This sentence would be ambiguous without the word meme, because 
the pronoun elles employed alone could as well apply to any other 
ladies as to the nominative, sisters. 

OF ACTIVE AND NEUTER VERBS, WHICH BEING USED EMPHATICALLY, REQ.UIRE 
THE REFLECTED PRONOUNS MOI-MSME, TOI-MEME, LUI-MEME, &c, TO BE 
PLACED AFTER THEM, WHETHER THEY ARE REFLECTED OR NOT. 

299. It is often the case that in praising II arrive souvent qu'en nous flattant 

ourselves we reflect upon others. nous-memes nous medisons d'aumii. 

We often excuse in ourselves the faults Nous excusons souvent en nous-memes 

which we blame in others. les fautes que nous blamons chez les 

autres. 

Have you seen that yourself 1 Yes, I Avez-vous vu cela vous-meme ? Oui, 

have. je l'ai vu moi-meme. 

Who has painted this landscape 1 It is Qui a peint ce paysage 1 C'est ma 

my daughter ; she did it herself. fille ; elle l'a peint elle-meme. 

The first and second sentences would be flat, without the pronoun 
vous-memes being placed after the verb. 

The third is emphatically used, and signifies, Are you very sure you 
have seen that 1 

The fourth is also emphatic, and means that the lady received no 
assistance in painting the landscape ; that she has done it alone. But 
it would be ridiculous, in speaking of a lady, to say, for, Site has 
killed herself, Elle s'est tvee elle meme, because it is not to be supposed 
that any one would be inclined to assist her in committing a suicide ; 
the reflected pronoun se placed before the verb is sufficient to show 
that she died by her own hands. 



OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS EACH OTHER AND OXE ANOTHER. 

300. The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another, may be 
used with active and neuter verbs ; the reciprocal verb, when neuter, 
may govern the preposition to, &, or any other. 
13 



146 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

A receiprocal action requiring the interference of at least two 
persons, reciprocal verbs are always used in the plural. 

The reciprocal pronoun in French corresponding to the words one 
another and each other, is, Vun Vautre, (sing, masc.) Vune Vautre, 
(sing, fem.) les uns les autres, (plu. masc.) les unes les autres, (plu. 
fern.) 

OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS EACH OTHER AND ONE ANOTHER, EMPLOYED 
WITH ACTIVE VERBS. 

301. When the verb which expresses the reciprocal action is 
active, that verb is, in French, both reflected and reciprocal ; it is, 
therefore, preceded by a reflected pronoun of the same person and 
number as the nominative, and followed by the pronoun Vun Vautre, 
agreeing in gender with the nominative ; as to its number, the two 
words Vun Vautre are used in the singular, if the reciprocal action 
takes place only between two persons, and in the plural if between 
more than two ; as in, 

The two sisters of your friend love one Les deux sceurs de votre ami s'aiment 

another tenderly. Vune Vautre tendrement. 

These two children hate one another. Ces deux enfants se ha'issent Vun 

Vautre. 
Wolves do not eat each other. Le^ loups ne se mangent pas les uns les 

autres. (More than two wolves.) 

OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS EACH OTHER AND ONE ANOTHER, EMPLOYED 
WITH A NEUTER VERB GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION TO, A. 

302. When the verb which expresses the reciprocal action is 
neuter and governs the preposition to, it, in French, that verb is still 
reflected and reciprocal ; the preposition it is placed between the two 
words Vun Vautre, which compose the reciprocal pronoun, and this 
pronoun follows the same rule as in the preceding case, in relation to 
number, gender and person ; as in, 

I would fain know what these two Je voudrais bien savoir ce que ces deux 
persons are saying to each other. personnes se disent Vune a, Vautre. 

Rogues do not trust each other. Les fripons ne se fient pas les uns aux 

autres. (More than two rogues.) 

These houses are a nuisance to each Ces maisons se nuisent les unes aux 
other. autres. (More than two houses.) 

OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS ONE ANOTHER AND EACH OTHER, EMPLOYED 
WITH NEUTER VERBS GOVERNING ANY OTHER PREPOSITION THAN THE PREP- 
OSITION TO, A. 

303. Whenever the verb which expresses the reciprocal action is 
neuter, and does not govern the preposition to, that verb is no longer 
reflected ; but the reciprocal pronoun, Vun Vautre, keeps its place after 



PRONOUN. 147 

h, and, as in the preceding case, the preposition is placed between the 

two words which compose that pronoun ; as to the number and gender 

of these words, they follow the preceding rule : as in, 

We speak of one another. Nous parlons Pun de Vavtre. 

Why do these ladies always speak ill Pourquoi ces dames parlent-elles tou- 

of one another \ jours mal les unes des autres. (More 

than two persons.) 

They will destroy each other. II periront les uns par les autres. 

These two rooms communicate with Ces deux chambre communiquent I'une 

each other by a passage. avec Vautre par un corridor. 



OF THE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, (SPEAKING OF THINGS,) USED AS 
DHIECT OBJECTS OF A VERB. 

304. The personal objective pronouns it and them, (speaking of 

things.) when used without a preposition, have no other equivalent in 

French than him, her and them, (speaking of persons,) expressed by 

le, la and les ; they present no difficulty, the language admitting that 

these pronouns, le, la and les, should be indifferently applied to 

persons and things ; thus we say, with the same propriety : 

Je le vois, (speaking of a man or a horse.) 

Je la vois, (speaking of a woman or a cow.) 

Je les vois, (speaking of men, women, horses and cows.) 

305. But when the pronouns it and them (speaking of things) are 
preceded by a preposition, they have no equivalent in French different 
from him, lui ; her, elle ; them, (masc.) eux ; them, (fem.) elles; to 
them, leur ; except in the case of the prepositions to and of, which, 
with those pronouns, are expresssed by the contracted pronouns y and 
en, and the genius of the French language does not always admit of 
these pronouns of persons being applied to things. A Frenchman, in 
this difficulty, should refer to usage and follow that of our best 
writers: but foreigners are deprived of this assistance — they want 
rules to guide them ; we therefore will establish such principles as to 
enable them to express themselves correctly in all cases. 



OF THE OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, PRECEDED BY THE 
PREPOSITIONS .4 AND DE IN FRENCH, WHATEVER MAY BE THE 
PREPOSITIONS USED IN ENGLISH INSTEAD OF TO AND OF. 

306. Whenever the pronouns it. and them (speaking of things) are 
preceded by the prepositions of and to, and relate to nouns of things 



148 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

not personified, they should be expressed by en for of it, and y for to 
it; as in, 

As to this fact, if you speak of it, I Quant a. ce fait, si vous en parlez, je le 

will deny it. nierai. 

It is in vain for me to remonstrate J'ai beau vous faire des remonstrances, 

with you, you never pay attention vous n'y faites jamais attention. 

to it. 

If you desire these books, I will make Si vous desirez ces livres, je vous en 

you a present of them. ferai present. 

I will give you no more lessons ; you Je ne vous donnerai plus de lecons; 

do not pay attention to them. vous n'y etes pas assez attentif. 

307. But y and en, although most generally applied to things, are 
sometimes used in speaking of persons ; as in, 

I saw your brother, and I have spoken J'ai vu votre frere, et nous en avons 

of him much with my son. beaucoup parle, mon tils et moi. 

Have you heard of the captains of your Avez-vous recu des nouvelles des capi- 

two ships 1 Yes, we heard of them taines de vos deux navires % Oui, 

this morning. nous en avons entendu parler ce 

matin. 

In the last appointments you have Dans les dernieres nominations que 

made, have you thought of my sons 1 vous avez faites, avez-vous pense a 

Yes, I thought of them. mes fils % Oui, j'y ai pense. 

In these sentences, or any other similar to them, it is evident that 

the mind alludes more intimately to things connected with the persons 

spoken of than to those persons themselves ; the first sentence, for 

instance, signifies, I have spoken of his interest, rather than his person 

as a man; the second, We heard of their safety, or of their being in 

such situation, rather than we heard of them as being such, or such men ; 

the third implies the same meaning as the first. If the mind, on the 

contrary, should refer more intimately to the persons spoken of than 

to things connected with them, the pronouns of persons should be 

used with the preposition, and the preceding sentences should be 

rendered by : 

Oui, j'ai beaucoup parle de lui avec mon fils. 
Oui, nous avons entendu parler d'eux. 
Oui, j'ai pense d eux. 



OF THE OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, (SPEAKING OF THINGS,) 
WHEN THEY ARE PRECEDED IN FRENCH BY ANY OTHER PREPOSI- 
TION THAN DE AND A. 

.308. Whenever the objective pronouns it and them (speaking of 
things) are preceded in French by any preposition other than it and 



PRONOUN. 149 

de, it should be remarked whether the nouns of things to which these 
pronouns relate are personified or not ; if personified, they are 
expressed in French by the corresponding objective pronouns relating 
to persons, lui, elle, eux, elles, leur ; if not personified, the sentence 
should be modified so as to dispense with the pronouns altogether, or 
the construction should be altered so as to admit of these pronouns 
and their prepositions being rendered by y or en. 

A noun of things is said to be personified when the thing repre- 
sented by that noun is made to act or to feel as a person would, or to 
possess qualities which belong only to persons. 

The following sentences will illustrate these several cases. 

309. Mountains are frequented on account of the air one breathes on them ; how 
many people are indebted to them for the recovery of their health ! 

In the first part of this sentence, the noun mountains is not person- 
ified ; on them, therefore, cannot be expressed literally ; the English 
idea should be modified, and there used instead of on them, and 
expressed by y, placed before the verb breathes ; in the second propo- 
sition, on the contrary, the noun mountains is personified, for a person, 
or God alone, and not a thing, has the power to confer a benefit so as 
to create a debt of gratitude in the heart of man ; to them should, 
then, be expressed by leur, a pronoun of person placed before the 
verb, and the whole sentence rendered as follows : 

Les montagnes sont frequences a cause de Pair qu'on y respire; combien degens 
leur doivent le retablissement de leur sante. 

310. War brings in its train numberless evils. 

War is a state of things, which, properly speaking, has not the 
faculty of bringing things in its train ; it is man, who, being in a state 
of excitement against his fellow men, causes the evils spoken of, and 
brings them in his train as long as he fights, and long after having 
done fighting ; the noun war, in the above sentence, is then personi- 
fied, and that sentence should be expressed by : 

La guerre entraine apres elle des maux sans nombre. 

311. Everybody knows that self-love is a bad adviser ; yet we take counsel 
from it. and permit it to direct most of our actions. 

We do not take counsel from a thing ; and when we say that we do, 
we attribute to the noun which represents that thing, a faculty that 
is only possessed by man ; we then personify that noun of things, and 
13* 



150 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the pronouns which relate to it should in French be expressed by the 
corresponding pronouns of persons ; the preceding sentence should 
then be translated as follows : 

Chacun sait que V 'amour propre est un mauvais conseiller ; cependant nous prenons 
conseil de lui, et nous lui permettons de diriger la plupart de nos actions. 

312. Speaking of an army, we say, We marched up to it. If an 
army is in fact a thing, this thing is composed of men, and in the 
above expression the mind alludes rather to those who compose it 
than to the thing itself; the noun army is then personified, and we 
should say, Nous marchdmes & elle. 

313. These birds and dogs are my only pleasure ; I have nothing but them. 
They are my only diversion ; I dream of nothing else. 

These horses are exhausted ; give them a little wine. 
These flowers will die unless they have some water. 

When speaking of animals, flowers and other things we love 
dearly, the feelings we experience for them raise them, in our esti- 
mation, to the same level with human beings ; they thus become per- 
sonified, and the pronouns which relate to them should be expressed 
accordingly. The above sentences should therefore be rendered by ; 

Ces oiseaux et ces chiens sont mon seul plaisir ; je n'aime qu'eux. Eux seuls 

m'occupent; je ne reve qu'd eux. 
Ces chevaux sont rendus ; donnez leur un peu de vin. 
Ces fleurs vont perir si on ne leur donne un peu d'eau. 

314. Gambling is a horrid passion; health, reputation*, fortune, honor, are 

swallowed by it. 

In this sentence the noun gambling is not personified ; by it cannot, 
therefore, be expressed literally; but the genius of the language 
admits of its being rendered by the adverb there, y, and we should 
say: 

Le jeu est une passion horrible ; la sante, la reputation, la fortune et l'honneur 
s'y engloutissent. 

I rolled a large stone, to be able to look through the window, and mounted upon it. 

Stone is not personified, and this sentence should be rendered by 
suppressing the pronoun it altogether, which does not alter the clear- 
ness of the sentence ; as, 

Je fis rouler une grosse pierre, pour pouvoir regarder par la fenetre, et je montai 

dessvs. 



PRONOUN. 151 

OF THE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, OMITTED IN ENGLISH IN AN- 
SWERING QUESTIONS, BUT WHICH SHOULD BE EXPRESSED LN FRENCH 
WITH THE VERBS OF WHICH THEY ARE THE COMPLEMENT. 

315. In the following sentences, 

Is this your horse 1 Yes, it is, 

Are these young men your sons 1 Yes, they are, 

Are you sick 1 Yes, I am, 

Do not forget to mention my marriage to your father. No, I will not, 

the answers, Yes, it is, Yes, they are, Yes, I am, and I will not, 
although complete in English, are incomplete in French : the verbs 
require a complement, which is, my horse for the first, my sons for the 
second, sick for the third, and forget to mention it for the last. But 
the repetition in the answer of the noun, adjective, or idea employed 
in the question, would cause a repetition contrary to the rules of 
euphony ; they should not be repeated, then, but the pronouns it or 
them should be used in their stead, and the sentences completed as 
follows : Yes, it is it ; Yes, they are them; Yes, I am it ; No, I will 
not forget it. 

It remains now to be examined how these pronouns, it and them, 
should be expressed, according to their being used instead of a noun, 
an adjective, or an idea. 

316. (1.) A noun has a number and a gender of its own ; it can, 
therefore, impart either of them to the pronoun which takes its place ; 
we will then establish this rule : 

Whenever the pronouns it or them are expressed in French to com- 
plete the meaning of a sentence, if they take the place of a noun, 
they agree with that noun in number and gender, whether this sen- 
tence expresses a comparison or not, and are expressed by one of the 
following words, le, (masc. sing.,) la, (fem. sing.,) les, (masc. and 
fern. plur. ;) as in, 

Will this young man ever become your Ce jeune homme sera-t-il jamais vqtre 

son-in-law 1 Yes, he will. gendre ^ Oui, il le sera. 

Will this young lady ever be your Cette demoiselle sera-t-elle jamais votre 

daughter-in-law 1 Yes, she will. belle-fille 1 Oui, elle la sera. 

Nobody, my dear, is more of your friend Personne, ma chere, n'est plus votre 

than I am. amie que je ne la suis. 

Are these young men your sons 1 Yes, Ces jeunes gens, sont-ils vos fils 1 Oui, 

they are. ce les sont. 

317. (2.) An adjective has neither number nor gender of its own ; 
it cannot therefore impart either to the pronoun which takes its place ; 
hence, the following rule . 



152 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Whenever the pronoun it is required in French to complete the 
meaning of a sentence, if it takes the place of an adjective, it should 
be expressed by the masculine singular pronoun le, whatever may be 
the number and gender of that adjective ; as in, 

Are you sick, sir 1 Yes, I am. Etes vous malade, monsieur 1 Oui, je 

le suis. 
Are you tired, madam 1 No, I am not. Etes vous fatiguee, madame 1 Non, 

je ne le suis pas. 
Are you pleased, ladies 1 Yes, we are. Etes vous contentes, mesdames *? Oui, 

nous le sommes. 

318. (3.) It sometimes happens that a noun is used as an adjec- 
tive, and it is always the case, when it is neither preceded by the 
article the or the adjective a; then the pronouns it or thetn are still 
invariably expressed by le; as in, 

Ladies, are you relations to Mr. D. 1 Mesdames, etes vous parentes de Mon- 

Yes, we are. sieur D. 1 Oui, nous le sommes. 

Gentlemen, are you men of honor 1 Messieurs, etes vous hommes d'hon- 

Yes, we are. neurl Oui, nous le sommes. 

In these two sentences, the noun relations and the expression men 
of honor are mere qualificatives, not being preceded by the article the 
or the adjective a. 

319. An idea is of no number nor gender ; therefore, the pronoun 
it, employed to take the place of one, is always singular masculine in 
French and expressed by le; as in, 

Will you have the kindness to take this Voulez-vous avoir la bonte de porter ce 
book to your sister'? Yes, I will. livre a votre soeur. Oui, je le ferai 

avec plaisir. 

But if the sentence should express a comparison, the pronoun le 
could be dispensed with ; as in , 

A name has less influence on man than L'influence des noms sur les hommes 

one might think. est plus rare qu'on ne pense. 

Happy people are more numerous than Les gens heureux sont plus communa 

you think. que vous ne pensez. 



OF THE EXPRESSIONS TO IT AND THERE, OMITTED IN ENGLISH IN 
ANSWERING QUESTIONS, AND WHICH SHOULD BE EXPRESSED IN 
FRENCH WITH THE VERB OF WHICH THEY ARE THE COMPLEMENT. 

320. Whenever to it and there are necessary to complete the 
meaning of a sentence, they should be expressed in French, although 



PRONOUN. 



153 



they are omitted in English, and rendered by the word y, unless the 
verb before which it is to be placed should commence by the vowel i, 
in which case, euphony requires that this pronoun or adverb should 
also be omitted in French ; as in, 

Will you think of rae when I am gone "? Penserez-vous a moi quand je serai 

Yes, I will (think oi" it.) parti 1 Oui, j' y penserai. 

Do you think your father will be at Croyez-vous que votre pere soit chez 

home to-night 1 Yes, I think he lui ce soir 1 Oui, je crois qu'il y 

will (be there.) sera. 

Will you go into into the country to- Irez-vous demain a la campagne 1 Oui, 

morrow 1 Yes, I think I shall (go je crois que j'irai. 

there.) 



OF THE PRONOUNS ITSELF, THEMSELVES, (SPEAKING OF THINGS.) 

321. The pronouns itself and themselves (speaking of things) are 
not grammatically used in English without being preceded by a prepo- 
sition, but their equivalent, se, is employed in many cases, in French, 
with active and neuter verbs, to express either a situation or an action 
which is not the result of the interference of any body ; as in. 

This flower is fading fast (fades itself.) Cette fleur se fletrit-vite. 

If we do not drink that wine, it will Si nous ne buvons pas ce vin, il se 

get spoiled (spoil itself.) gatera. 

I let the tumblers fall and they broke to J'ai laisse tomber les verres et ils se 

pieces (broke themselves.) sont casse en mille pieces. 



322. But itself and themselves, (speaking of things,) preceded by a 
preposition, are very often used in English, and usage varies in 
French as to the manner in w-hich they ought to be expressed ; the 
following examples will show how our best writers have expressed 
these two pronouns : 



Vice is odious in itself (of if.s nature.) 
A favor always carries its reward with 

itself. 
Crime always carries remorse with 

itself. 
Deception always bears its punishment 

in itself. 



Le vice est odieux en soi, or lui-memc. 

Un bienfait porte toujours sa recom- 
pense avec soi, or lui. 

Le crime traine toujours le remords 
apres soi, or lui. 

Toute tromperie porte avec elle, or soi, 
sa punition. 



It results from these examples, that the pronoun itself is indifferently 
expressed by soi, lui or elle; that the adjective meme is added to these 
pronouns, either to avoid an ambiguity or to convey the emphatic 
meaning implied in the sentence ; the pronoun itself signifies, then, 
in or of its nature. 



154 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



323. The plural pronoun themselves is never expressed by soi, but 
by eux and elles, followed or not by the adjective meme, in cases 
similar to the preceding ; as in, 



Vices are odious in themselves. 
Favors always carry their reward with 

themselves. 
Crimes always carry remorse with 

themselves. 



Les vices sont odieux en eux-memes. 
Les bienfaits portent toujours leur 

recompense avec eux. 
Les crimes trainent toujours le remords 

apres eux. 



OF THE PRONOUNS ONE'S SELF, HIMSELF, AND OURSELVES, (USED 
INDEFINITELY.) 

324. The pronoun one's self, as well as himself and ourselves, (used 
indefinitely,) may be used as direct or indirect objects of a verb ; their 
antecedent is always an indefinite pronoun, a verb in the infinite mood, 
or a noun used in a vague and indefinite meaning ; and they are 
expressed by the pronoun soi, without the adjective meme, unless used 
emphatically ; as in, 



We (indefinite) ought but seldom to 

speak of ourselves (indefinite.) 
It is necessary for everybody to take 

care of himself (indefinite.) 
To love one's self and others is the duty 

of an honest man. 
In attempting to deceive others, we 

(indefinite) often deceive ourselves 

(indefinite.) 
To love only ourselves (indefinite) is to 

be good for nothing. 
To act in this manner is to ruin one's 

self. 
Each one works for himself (indefi- 
nite.) 
He who ascribes everything to himself 

(indefinite) has but few friends. 
A man (indefinite) can speak favorably 

of himself (indefinite) when he is 

calumnniated. 



On ne doit parler que rarement de soi 

II est necessaire de prendre soin de 

soi. 
Aimer soi et les autres est le devoir de 

l'homme de bien. 
En essayant de tromper les autres, 

c'est souvent soi que Von trompe. 

N' aimer que soi c'est n'etre bon a rien. 

Agir ainsi c'est se perdre soi-meme 

(emphatic.) 
Chacun travaille pour soi. 

Quiconque rapporte tout a soi n'a pas 

beaucoup d'amis. 
Tin homme peut parler avantageuse- 

ment de soi quand on le calomnie. 



325. It sometimes happens that these pronouns are used as nomi- 
natives ; but it is only by apposition, and they are then expressed by 
soi-meme: as in, 



In trying to deceive others, we are En essayant de tromper les autres, on 
sometimes deceived ourselves. est souvent trompe soi-meme. 

Although the preceding rules are admitted by most grammarians 
as laws in our language, some of our best writers have inverted them, 



PRONOUN. 155 

by using soi in relation to a definite noun of person, and lui in con- 
nection with an indefinite pronoun ; but these are mere licenses, which 
a foreigner should entirely disregard. 



REPETITION OF PERSONAL OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

326. Personal objective pronouns are invariably repeated before each 
verb by which they are governed, in simple tenses, but in compound 
tenses, they are not ; as in, 

God is the creator of the universe ; we Dieu est le createur de l'univers ; nous 
ought to fear, serve, and love him. devons le craindre, le servir, et 

l'adorer. 

He has so much flattered, praised, II nous a tant flattes, hues et bl&mes, 
and blamed us, that we do not know que nous ne savons reellement que 
what to think of him. penser de lui. 

327. Whenever the second verb is a compound of the first, and 
expresses the repetition of the same action, the objective pronoun may 
not be repeated ; but that repetition cannot be dispensed with, if the 
second verb express a different action ; as in, 

I tell it and tell it again ; if you do not Je le dis et redis encore ; si vous ne 

follow my advice, you will certainly suivez pas mes conseils, vous vous 

ruin yourself forever. perdrez certainement pour toujours. 

You will never finish this work; for Vous ne finirez jamais cet ouvrage ; car 

you do and undo it twenty times a vous le faites et le defaites vingt fois 

day. par jour. 



OF TWO OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS GOVERNED BY THE SAME VERB IN ALL 
THE TENSES OF THAT VERB, EXCEPT IN THE IMPERATIVE MOOD USED 
AFFIRMATIVELY. 

328. Whenever a verb governs two personal pronouns, whether it 
be in the affirmative, negative or interrogative form, and whatever 
may be the tense or mood in which that verb is used, except the 
imperative mood employed affirmatively, these two pronouns are 
placed before the verb, in the following order : 

The pronouns me, te, se, nous and vous, are never employed 
together, and one of them being used, it always comes first ; they are 
never followed either by Jul, or lair. Le, la, and les, are never employed 
together ; and if one of them should be used with the verb, it should 
be placed first, provided none of the five preceding ones are wanted. 



156 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Lui and leur are never employed together, and should come first, pro- 
vided no one of those already mentioned is used with the verb ; but 
they are never properly used with y. Finally, y always precedes en, 
which is always the last. 

The following examples will illustrate these rules : 



Will you send it, him, her or them to 

me. 
I will send it, him, her or them to 

thee. 
He will remember it, him, her or them. 
He will send it, him, her or them to us. 
They will send it, him, her or them to 

you. 
He compels me to it. 
I will compel thee to it. 
He condemns himself to it. 
You compel us to it. 
I have compelled you to it. 
Why do you speak to me of it. 
He will speak to thee about (of) it. 
He will complain of it. 
Why did you not speak to us about 

(of) it. 
I have spoken to you about (of) it. 
I will send it him, her or them, to him, 

to her, or to them. 
I will compel him, her, or them to it. 
I will warn him, her or them of it. 
I will send (to) him (to) her or (to) 

them some. 
Will you put a piece to that coatl Yes, 

I will, (put one of them to it.) 



Voulez-vous me le, me la, or me les 

envoyer. 
Je te le, te la, te les enverrai. 

II se le, se la, or se les rappellera. 

II nous le, notes la, or nous les enverra 

lis vous le, vous la, vous les enverront. 

11 m'y force. 

Je t'y forcerai. 

II s'y condamne. 

Vous nous y forcez. 

Je vous y ai force. 

Pourquoi m'en parlez-vous. 

II t 'en parlera. 

II s'en plaindra. 

Pourquoi ne nous en avez-vous pas 

parle. 
Je vous en ai parle. 
Je le lui, la lui, les lui, le leur, la leur, 

les leur enverrai. 
Je Vy or les y forcerai. 
Je Pen or les en avertirai. 
Je lui en or leur en enverrai. 

Voulez-vous mettre une piece a cet 
habit 1 Oui, j'y en mettrai une. 



329. Whenever the pronouns me, te, se, nous and vous, are to be 
used with either to him, to her, or to them, as the objects of the same 
verb, me,te, se, nous or vous, should be placed before that verb, and to 
him, to her, or to them, should follow it, expressed by d lui, d elle, d 
eux, or a elles; as in, 

Will you introduce me to him, to her, Voulez me presenter d lui, d elle, a eux, 

or to them 1 or d elles ? 

I will introduce thee to him, to her, or Je te presenterai d lui, d elle, d eux, d 

to them. elles. 

He has introduced himself to him, to II s'est presente d lui, d elle, d eux, d 

her, or to them. elles, &c. 



330. Y is never used with lui and leur, because a verb in French 
cannot have two objects governed by the same preposition, unless they 
are separated by a conjunction, which, however, would be the case, if 
y, lui and leur, should be used together, since they stand for to it, to 
him, to her and to them. This difficulty in the French language will 



PRONOUN. 157 

be explained when speaking of the relation existing between the verb 
and its objects. 



OF TWO OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS EMPLOYED WITH THE VERB IN THE 
IMPERATIVE MOOD USED AFFIRMATIVELY. 

331. Whenever a verb employed in the imperative mood used affirm- 
atively governs two pronouns, these pronouns are placed after that 
verb, in the following order : 

Le, la, les, are always placed first, and moi and toi are placed after 
y, but nous and vous precede it, and en comes the last ; as, 

Send it, him, her, or them, to him, to Envoyez le lui, la lui, or les lui, le leur, 

her, or to them. la leur, or les leur. 

Send it, him, her, or them, to me, or Envoyez le ?noi, la moi, les moi, or le 

to us. nous, la nous, les nous. 

Compel me to it, and I shall do it. Forcez-y moi, et je le ferai. 

Compel us to it, and we shall do it. Forcez nous-y, et nous le ferons. 

If you have any cheese, give me some Si vous avez du fromage, donnez m'en. 

Here are some apples; give him, her or Voici des pommes; donnez-Ziw or leur 
tiiem some (of them.) en, &c. 

332. The adverb there, expressed in French by y, follows the same 
rule as the prononns to it and to them, (applied to things,) also ren- 
dered by y ; thus we should say, 

Take me there. Conduisez-y moi. Take us there. Conduisez-nows y. 

Behave well there. Conduis-y toi bien, Behave well there. Conduisez-vous y 
&c. bien, &c. 

Although most grammarians agree upon the respective place of the 
pronouns moi, toi, and y, usage has now almost admitted that the pro- 
noun or adverb y should follow the pronouns of the first and second 
person singular moi, and toi, making an elision of oi, as follows : 

Take me there. Conduisez m'y. 

Behave well there. Conduis t'y bien. 

Send him there. Envoyez Vy. 



QUESTIONS. 



259. What is a pronoun, and how many kinds of pronouns are there * 

260. What is a personal pronoun 1 

261. How are personal nominative pronouns expressed in French 1 

262. What is the place of personal nominative pronouns in affirmative and 
interrogative sentences 1 

14 



158 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

263. When a verb in the subjunctive mood is used without que, what is the 
place of the nominative pronoun % 

263. When a verb is used to quote the words of another person, where is the 
nominative pronoun placed 1 

263. What are the adverbs, which, being placed before a verb, require that 
the nominative pronoun should be placed after that verb 1 

264. When a sentence expresses a strong feeling of wonder, indignation, 
surprise, &c, how are the personal pronouns expressed, and what is their place 1 

265. When personal nominative pronouns are used after the verb to be, as 
its complement, how are they expressed % 

265. How are the personal nominative pronouns expressed, when used in 
answering a question with the defective verbs well, would, should, &c, or any 
others used in a similar manner 1 

266. When a personal nominative pronoun is immediately followed by an 
adjective, how is it expressed 1 

267. How ai-e personal nominative pronouns expressed in distributive sen- 
tences, and what is called a distributive sentence 1 

268. How are the personal nominative pronouns expressed in exclamative 
sentences 1 

269. How are personal nominative pronouns expressed after as and than, in 
sentences expressing a comparison % 

270. How are personal nominative pronouns expressed, when followed by a 
relative pronoun 1 

271. What should be the nature of a noun in order that it may serve as an 
antecedent for a personal pronoun without creating an ambiguity 1 

272. When a verb has for its nominative two pronouns of different persons, 
united by the conjunction and, in what number and person should the verb be 
used, if there is a pronoun of the first person among the nominatives, and by what 
should it be preceded 1 

272. If there is no pronoun of the first person among the nominatives, and the 
two pronouns are of a different person, in what person should the verb be used, 
and by what should it be preceded 1 

272. If the two pronouns be of the third person, what should be done 1 

272. When the verb has for its nominative more than one pronoun, what is 
the respective place of these pronouns 1 

272. When, instead of being united by the conjunction and, the pronouns are 
separated by or, in what person and number is the verb used 1 

274. In what cases are the personal nominative pronouns of the first and 
second persons singular and plural repeated or not in French 1 

274. When are the conjunctions which should unite the several propositions 
forming a sentence, for personal nominative pronouns of the first and second 
persons, not to be repeated 1 

275. When two or several verbs in the third person are not in the same tense, 
should their nominative pronouns be repeated 1 

276. When several verbs in the third person have different objects, should 
their nominative pronouns be repeated 1 

277. When several verbs in the third person plural follow one another, and 
the conjunction and is suppressed before the last, should their nominative pro- 
nouns be repeated 1 

278. If the conjunction and, which precedes the last verb, is itself followed by 
a long incidental sentence, should the personal nominative pronoun of the third 
person be repeated before that last verb 1 

279. Although the first verbs in the third person are used without a pronoun, 
if the last be separated from them by a long incidental sentence, should the verb 
be preceded by a pronoun 1 

279. When several verbs are united by any other conjunction than and, or, 
and neither, should the personal pronouns of" the third person be repeated 1 

280. When is a personal objective pronoun the direct or the indirect object 
of a verb 1 



PRONOUN. 159 

281. When personal pronouns are direct objects of a verb, what is their place 
in all the tenses of that verb, except in the imperative mood used affirmatively, 
and how are they expressed 1 

251. What is the place of objective personal pronouns, when the verb is in 
the imperative mood used affirmatively, and how are they expressed 1 

252. If a verb govern a pronoun and a noun, as its direct objects, what is the 
place of that noun and pronoun 1 How is the pronoun expressed 1 By what 
should the verb be preceded, according to the noun and pronoun being separated 
by the conjunctions and, or, or neither? 

284. When personal pronouns are indirect objects of a verb governing the 
preposition to, d, what is the place of those pronouns 1 How are they expressed 
in all the tenses except in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and should the 
preposition be omitted I 

. When the verb is in the imperative mood used affirmatively, what is die 
place of the pronouns, and how should they be expressed 1 

2 Q 6. Should the verb governing the preposition to, d be reflected, in French 1 
What should be die place of die objective pronoun, and should the preposition be 
expressed * 

286. Is diere any difference, in this case, whether the imperative mood be 
negative or affirmative 1 

287. Are there not certain verbs, which, being used in a certain signification, 
require the pronoun and the preposition to, d to be placed after them 1 What are 
diose verbs, and what should be their signification. (Ask the question separately 
for each.) 

288. When a verb governs more than one pronoun, or a pronoun and a noun, 
with the preposition to, d, what is the place of the several pronouns or nouns, and 
should the preposition be repeated before each 1 

2S9. Can a verb, in French, have two direct objects, unless they are separated 
by a conjunction 1 

289. Can a verb, in French, have two indirect objects governed by the same 
preposition, unless they are separated by a conjunction 1 

289. What mode of reasoning should be resorted to in order to ascertain 
whether a verb governs the preposition to, in French, when that preposition is 
omitted in English 1 (Ask the pupil to analyze the several sentences given in 
die grammar in paragraph 289.) 

290. When a verb governs a pronoun with any other preposition than the 
preposition to, d, what is the place of the pronoun in all the tenses of that verb, 
whether affirmative or negative, and should the preposition be expressed and 
repeated. 

291. How are the pronouns him, her, and them, expressed in French, when 
preceded by a prepositioii and followed by a relative pronoun, and used instead 
of that person who ? 

292. How are the same pronouns expressed, when not meaning that person 
who, and when the relative pronoun and the verb of which it is the nominative 
form an incidental preposition 1 

293. Should die objective pronoun be the direct object of the verb, and fol- 
lowed by a relative pronoun forming an incidental proposition, how should that 
objective pronoun be expressed, and by what should the first verb be preceded 1 

294. What should be done if the relative pronoun should not form an inci- 
dental proposition with the verb of which it is the nominative 1 

295. What is a reflected pronoun 1 

296. How are the reflected pronouns expressed in French, whether they be 
used as direct objects of a verb, or as its indirect objects governed by the prepo- 
sition to, a ? What is their place 1 

297. What is the place of reflected pronouns with a verb in the imperative 
mood used affirmatively, and how are they expressed in that case 1 

298. How are the reflected pronouns expressed, when they are preceded by 
any other preposition than the preposition to, d, and what is their place 1 

29^. When is the adjective meme used with the reflective pronouns 1 



160 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

299. When should an active or neuter verb be followed by the reflective pro- 
nouns moi-meme, toi-meme, lui-meme, &c, whether that verb is reflected or not n - 

300. How are the reciprocal pronouns one another and each other expressed 
in French 1 

300. In what number are reciprocal verbs used 1 

301. When a reciprocal verb is active, is it also reflected 1 

301. When the reciprocal action takes place between more than two persons, 
in what number is the pronoun Vun I'autre used 1 

302. Whenever a reciprocal verb is neuter and governs the preposition to, d, 
is that verb reflected, and what is the place of the preposition % 

302. In the case of the neuter verb governing the preposition to, d, does the 
reciprocal pronoun follow the same rule in reference to number and gender as 
in that of the verb being active 1 

303. When the reciprocal verb, being neuter, governs any other preposition 
than the preposition to, d, is that verb still reflected 1 What is the place of the 
preposition, and what should be the number and gender of the pronoun Vun 
V autre? 

304. When the pronouns it and them (speaking of things) are used without a 
preposition, are they expressed by any other words than him, her, and them, 
(applied to persons) 1 

308. How are of it, to it, and of them, and to them, expressed in French (ap- 
plied to things) 1 

337. Are not the pronouns ye and en sometimes used in speaking of persons, 
and in what case % 

SOS. What is understood by saying of a noun that it is personified 1 

308. When a noun of things is personified, how are the pronouns it and them 
expressed after a preposition % 

308. When it or them, preceded by a preposition other than to and of, relate 
to names of things which are not personified, what is to be done in reference to 
those pronouns in French % How should the sentence be turned 1 (The teacher 
should examine separately the examples given in the paragraphs 309, 310, 311, 
312, 313, and 314.) 

315. Whenever the pronouns it and them, understood in English, are required, 
in French, in order to complete the meaning of an answer, should they be 
expressed in French 1 

316, 317, 318, 319. How are they expressed when taking the place of a noun, 
an adjective, or an idea, and why are they so expressed 1 

318. When a noun is used as an adjective, how is the pronoun it expressed, 
which corresponds to that noun 1 

319. In sentences in which the pronoun it, understood in English, ex- 
presses a comparison, can the pronoun it be suppressed in French as well as 
in English 1 

320. Whenever the pronoun y, to it, or the adverb y, there, is understood in 
English, should it be expressed in French 1 

320. What is the only exception to the preceding rule *? 

321. Although the pronouns itself and themselves (applied to things) are not 
properly used in English without a preposition, are they not frequently used in 
French, and how should they be expressed 1 

322. 323. When itself and themselves are preceded by a preposition, how 
should they be expressed 1 

324. How are the pronouns one , s self and himself and ourselves (used indefin- 
itely) expressed in French, when they are preceded or not by a preposition 1 

324. When is the adjective me/ne employed with the pronoun soi, for one's 
self, himself, and ourselves (used indefinitely) 1 

325. Whenever the pronouns one's self or ourselves are used as nominatives 
by apposition, how are they expressed in French 1 

326. Are objective pronouns invariably repeated before each verb 1 

327. If the second verb is a compound of the first, and expresses the repeti- 
tion of the same action, should the objective pronoun be repeated % What should 



PRONOUN. 161 

be done if the second verb should express the reverse of the action expressed by 
the first 1 

328. When a verb governs two pronouns, in what order should these pro- 
nouns be used, and where should they be placed when the verb is not in the imper- 
ative mood used affirmatively 1 

329. Whenever the pronouns me, te, se, nous and vous, are to be used with 
any of the expressions to him, to her, and to them, where are these last pronouns 
placed, and how should they be expressed 1 

330. Is y ever used with lui and leur? Why is it not 1 

331. Whenever two pronouns are to be used with a verb in the imperative 
mood used affirmatively, in what order should they be used, and how should they 
be expressed 1 



OF ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

333. Grammarians do not agree upon the name to be given to these 
pronouns ; they are called, by some, mere adjectives, while others 
have preserved the old denomination of pronouns, with the qualifica- 
tion of possessive, as they always denote possession. Both of these 
pretensions are sustained by arguments of equal force ; but as this 
discussion has no influence upon the rules which relate to the word 
itself, and it being only necessary to know how to use it properly, we 
shall take no part in the matter, and, to satisfy both parties, will call 
this part of speech, Adjective Possessive Pronoun. 

The pronouns of this denomination are divided into two classes : 
1st. Those which are always joined to a noun. 
2d. Those which are never joined to a noun. 

OF ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ALWAYS JOINED TO A NOUN. 

334. Among this class of pronouns, some refer only to one person, 
and some to several. 

Those which refer only to one person, as the possessor, are : 



For the first person singular : 


(My) 


mon 


ma 


mes 


♦* second " " 


(Thy) 


ton 


ta 


tes 


« third " 


(His, her) 


son 


sa 


ses 



Mon, ton, and son, are masculine singular. 
Ma, ta, and sa, are feminine singular. 
Mes, tes, and ses, are masculine and feminine plural. 
Those which refer to several persons as possessing a single object 
are : 



r the first person plural ; 


(Our) 


notre 


notre 


■ second " " 


(Your) 


votre 


votre 


" third " 


(Their) 


leur 


leur 


14* 









162 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Notre, votre, and leur, are masculine and feminine singular. 
Those referring to several persons possessing several objects, are : 



First person, 


(Our) 


nos. 


Second person, 


(Your) 


vos. 


Third person, 


(Their) 


leurs. 



Nos, vos, and leurs, are masculine and feminine plural. 

In English, these pronouns agree in number and gender with the 
possessor ; while, in French, they agree with the object possesssed, 
and always precede it ; as, 

My horse, Mon cheval. (masculine.) 

Thy horse, Ton cheval. " 

His or her horse, Son cheval. " 

The pronoun which precedes horse remains in the masculine, what- 
ever may be the owner, because cheval is masculine. 

My cow, Ma vache. (feminine.) 

Thy cow, Ta vache. " 

His or her cow, Sa vache. " 

The pronoun which precedes cow remains in the feminine, what- 
ever may be the owner, because vache is feminine. 

My horses and cows, Mes chevaux et mes vaches. 

Thy horses and cows, Tes chevaux et tes vaches. 

His or her horses and cows, Ses chevaux et ses vaches. 

The pronouns which precede horses and cows do not vary on 
account of the gender of these two nouns, as they belong to either. 

Our horse and cow, Notre cheval et notre vache. 

Your horse and cow, Votre cheval et votre vache. 

Their horse and cow, Leur cheval et leur vache. 

The pronouns notre, votre, and leur, being masculine and feminine, 
do not vary before cheval and vache; but it must be understood, that, 
although they represent the third person plural, they are used in the 
singular, because they represent the property of one horse or one cow, 
divided among several individuals. 

But, if we wish to speak of several horses and several cows 
belonging to several individuals, then we have to employ the plural 
form of these very same pronouns of the third person plural ; as, 

Our horses and cows, Nos chevaux et nos vaches. 

Your horses and cows, Vos chevaux et vos vaches. 

Their horses and cows, Leurs chevaux et leurs vaches. 



PRONOUN. 163 

These pronouns, nos, vos, and leurs, being of either gender, do not 
vary before masculine or feminine nouns. 



Or inn!: PRONOUNS OUR, YOUR, THEIR, XOTRE, VOTRE, LEUR, SOMETIMES USED 
IX THE PLURAL, SOMETIMES IN THE SINGULAR, IN FRENCH, ACCORDING TO THE 
MEANING OF THE SENTENCE. 

335. Whenever the pronouns ow , your, and their, are used in 
English before plural nouns, it becomes necessary to ascertain 
whether any idea of plurality is attached to those nouns, whether the 
idea of plurality having been sufficiently expressed by the nominative 
of the verb, the nouns are only used in their abstract meaning, or, 
finally, whether these nouns are ever used in the plural, in French. 
In the former case, the pronoun and noun should be used in the plural ; 
in the two others, they ought to remain in the singular ; as in, 

Our heart experiences the want of Notre cceur eprouve le besoin d'aimer. 

love. 

Our hearts were struck with a feeling D'un sentiment d'horreur nos cceurs 

of horror. etaient frappes. 

We risked our lives in attempting to Nous avons risque notre vie en tachant 

save yours. de vous sauver. 

Tell them that if they ever come back Dites leur que s'ils reviement jamais 

again, I will break their necks. ici, je leur casserai le cou. 

Ladies, stop your impatience, and give Mesdames, moderez votre impatience, 

way to your humanity. et abandonnez-vous a votre human- 

he. 

In the first sentence, the noun heart is used in an abstract meaning, 
and does not imply an idea of plurality. 

In the second, the same noun refers to several persons whose hearts 
were individually struck with horror. 

In the third and fourth, the idea of plurality is sufficiently 
expressed by the nominative of the verb. 

In the last, the nouns impatience and humanite are never used in 
the plural, in French, when employed to express a feeling of impa- 
tience or humanity. 

OF THE PRONOUNS OUR AND YOUR, RELATING TO ONE PERSON ALONE. 

335. (bis) It is customary among writers and orators, when 
addressing the public, to make use of the personal pronoun we instead 
of /; but the adjectives and participles which refer to this pronoun 
should then be used in the singular, since they relate only to a single 
individual ; and the possessive adjective pronoun be employed, as if 
in reality it related to several persons, and expressed by notre or nos 



164 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

according to the following noun being in the pluial or in the sin- 
gular ; as in, 

We have done all in our power for our Nous avons fait tous nos efforts pom 

grammar to be as complete as possi- que notre grammaire, fut aussi com- 

ble. plete que possible. 

If we are not sure of convincing you. Si nous ne sommes pas sur de vous 

we are sure at least our motives are avoir convaincu, nous sommes au 

pure. moins certain de la purete de nos in- 
tentions. 

As a matter of politeness, the personal pronoun of the second 
person plural is used in French, as in English, instead of that of 
the second person singular, when addressing a person we are familiar 
with ; in these instances, the possessive pronouns of the second person 
plural, votre, vos, should be used in French, and not those of the 
second person singular, ton or tes ; thus, speaking to a single person, 
we should say, politely, 

You apply yourself too much to your Vous etes trop appliqui dans vos etudes , 
studies. (and not, dans tes 6tudes.) 



OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 

336. The possessive adjective pronoun agrees in French with the 
thing possessed, and not with the possessor, as in English ; that is 
to say, it is always of the same number and gender as the noun before 
which it is placed ; as in, 

Your sister is very amiable, but her Votre sceur est fort aimable, mais ses en- 
children are very troublesome. fants sont insupportables. 

I like your brother, but I cannot bear J'aime beaucoup votre frere, mais je ne 

his wife. puis souffrir safemme. 

What has your daughter done with her Que votre fille a-t-elle fait de son livre? 
book! 

337. Exception. Whenever an adjective possessive pronoun is 
placed before a feminine noun beginning with a vowel or an h mute 
euphony requires that pronoun to be used in the masculine ; as in, 

Her image follows me everywhere. Son image (fem.) me suit partout. 

His humanity is proverbial. Son humanite (fem.) est proverbiale. 



PRONOUN. 



165 



REPETITION OF THE ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 

338. The possessive adjective pronoun indicating the same views 
of the mind in reference to the noun as the article does, with 
only an additional idea of possession, those two parts of speech should 
follow the same rules in most cases ; and we might, perhaps, dispense 
with the repetition of those rules here ; but as foreigners cannot hear 
too often the same principles, especially when they differ with those 
of their own language in cases of similar nature, we will repeat, for 
the possessive pronouns, what we have already explained, in speaking 
of the article. 

OF THE REPETITION OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS WITH TWO NOUNS UNITED 
BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 

339. Whenever the possessive pronouns are used with several 
nouns in the singular, united by the conjunction and, expressed or 
understood, these pronouns should be repeated before each nonn ; 
but when the nouns are in the plural, although they are generally 
repeated, there are many cases in which usage allows that they should 
be used but once ; as in, 

He has the same faults as his father and II a les memes defauts que son pere et 

mother. sa mere. 

Resemble your fathers and mothers, Ressemblez a vos peres et meres, et 

and be, as they were, a blessing for soyez, comme eux, la benediction de 

your country. votre pays. 

Children resemble to some extent their Les enfants ont des ressemblances avec 

fathers aud mothers. leurs peres et leurs meres. 

Although usage authorizes the omission of the pronoun, as may be 
seen by the above examples, it is better that foreigners should not 
avail themselves of this privilege, for it is difficult for them to ascer- 
tain when they may use it with propriety or not. 

OF THE REPETITION OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN WITH TWO NOUNS UNITED 
BY THE CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 

340. Whenever two nouns, united by the conjunction or, ou, repre- 
sent objects of a different nature, the possessive pronoun should be 
repeated before the second ; but if the second noun is only used to 
explain the meaning of the first, the repetition of the pronoun is not 
necessary ; as in, 

You shall not leave this place without Vous ne sortirez pas d'ici sans me 
giving me your money or your donner votre argent ou vos habits. 
clothes. 

The Indians and the Jews are much Les Indiens et les Juifs sont trda 
attached to their castes or tribes. attaches a leurs castes ou trikus. 



166 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Money and clothes are two different things, but castes and tubes are 
synonymous. 

OP THE REPETITION OP THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS WITH TWO ADJECTIVES 
UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 

341. Whenever two adjectives, united by the conjunction and, et, 
are used to qualify the same noun, the possessive pronoun is not 
repeated ; but if the two adjectives qualify two nouns, one being 
expressed, and the other understood, the pronoun should be repeated 
before each ; although, if the two adjectives are placed after the noun, 
the repetition ought not to take place ; as in, 

Farewell, my good and worthy friend; Adieu, mon bon et digne ami; ne per- 

be of good courage, and think some- dez pas courage, et pensez quelque- 

times of me. fois a moi. 

Every man has his good and evil Chaque homme a son bon et son mauvais 

genius. genie. 

She has been placed on earth to share Elle a ete mise sur la terre pour parta- 

my good and evil fortune. ger ma fortune bonne et mauvaise. 

The last sentence is grammatical, but it would be better to say : 

Elle a ete mise sur la terre pour partager ma bonne et ma mauvaise fortune. 

In the first sentence, there is but one friend spoken of, — he was 
good and worthy ; in the second, there are two genii, one good, the 
other bad ; hence the repetition of the pronoun before the second 
adjective. 

OP THE REPETITION OP THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN WITH TWO ADJECTIVES 
UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 

342. Whenever two adjectives united by the conjunction or, ou, 
are not synonymous, the pronoun is repeated before the last ; unless 
the two adjectives should be placed after the noun, in which case, the 
pronoun is never repeated ; as in, 

We shall all be judged according to our Chacun de nous sera juge selon ses 

good or bad actions. bonnes ou ses mauvaises actions. 

Every village has now its own history, Chaque village a maintenant son his- 

either true or false. toire, vraie oufausse. 



OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSON SINGULAR, 
WITH THE NOUNS FATHER, MOTHER, &c. 

343. Whenever the nouns father, mother, sister, brother, uncle, 
aunt, child, friend, or any others of a similar nature, are used in an 



PRONOUN. 167 

apostrophe, or in speaking of our own relatives, they are preceded, 
in French, by the possessive pronouns mon, ma, mes, although 
these pronouns are omitted in English ; as in, 

Good morning, fadier; how is mother Bon jour, mon pere; comment se porte 

to-day 1 ma mere, or maman, ce matin 1 

Come, children, let us go and take a Venez, mes enfants, allons nous prome- 

walk. ner. 

Father, have you seen aunt Lucy to- Mon pere, avez-vous vu ma tante Lucie 

day 1 aujourdhui 1 

Although a person should address children who are not his own, it 
is a matter of kindness to use the pronoun my, in French ; as in, 

Well, children, how is your father this Eh bien ! mes enfants, comment se 
afternoon 1 trouve votre p£re aujourdhui 1 



OF THE DIFFERENCE EXISTING BETWEEN THE PERSONAL PRONOUN 
LEUR, MEANING TO THEM, AND THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN LEUR, 
MEANING THEIR. 

344. The personal pronoun leur, used for to them, should not be 
mistaken for the possessive pronoun leicr, meaning their; for the 
former never takes the sign of the plural, whilst the latter agrees in 
number and gender with the noun which it precedes ; as in, 

Do not speak to them of my affairs. Ne leur parlez pas de mes affaires. 

They have sold their horses and car- lis ont vendu leurs chevaux et leurs 
riages. voitures. 



OF THE POSSESSrVE PRONOUNS USED IN ENGLISH BEFORE NOUNS EX- 
PRESSING A PART OF THE BODY, OR ANYTHING BELONGING TO OUR 
MORAL OR PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION. 

345. Whenever any of the possessive pronouns is used before a 
noun expressing a part of our body, or anything which belongs to our 
moral or physical constitution, or when we speak of an object or 
person which is so designated by the verb, or the sense of the sen- 
tence, as not to leave any ambiguity in regard to the owner of what 
is spoken of, the genius of the language requires that the article the 
should be used in French, instead of the English pronoun. 

This peculiarity of the French language gives rise to the three fol- 
lowing rules : 



168 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF CASES IN WHICH THE ARTICLE THE ALONE SHOULD BE USED IN FRENCH, 
INSTEAD OF THE ENGLISH POSSESSIVE PRONOUN, BEFORE NOUNS THE SIGNI. 
FICATION OF WHICH HAS BEEN EXPLAINED IN THE PRECEDING CHAPTER. 

346. Whenever by using the article the alone, before such nouns as 
have been designated in the preceding chapter, no ambiguity arises in 
the sentence, it should be invariably employed in French, instead of 
the English possessive pronoun ; as in, 

I have lost my voice. J'ai perdu la voix. 

He lost his life. II a perdu la vie. 

My head aches, (or, I have a pain in J'ai mal a la tele. 

my head.) 

I have a sore throat, (or, I have a pain J'ai mal d la gorge. 

in my throat.) 

Your daughter tells a falsehood when- Votre fille dit un mensonge toutes les 

ever she opens her mouth. fois qu'elle ouvre la bouche. 

These sentences are perfectly clear with the article ; for nobody 
can lose any other voice or life than his own ; no one can have a pain 
in any other head or throat than his ; a person cannot open any other 
mouth than his own, in order to tell a lie. 

Remark. But if the nouns expressing a part of our body, or any 
of our faculties, were qualified by an adjective, the possessive pronouns 
should be used in French as they are in English ; as in, 

She raised her white hands to heaven. Elle leva ses blanches mains vers le 

ciel. 
I have lost my fine voice. J'ai perdu ma belle voix. 

What is the matter with your little Qu'avez-vous a votre petit pied? 
footl 



OF CASES IN WHICH AMBIGUITY WOULD ARISE IN THE SENTENCE BY USING 
THE ARTICLE THE ALONE, INSTEAD OF THE ENGLISH POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 

347. If an ambiguity should arise in a sentence by using the article 
the alone, as clearness is the first condition of good language, that 
ambiguity should be remedied in some way; for that purpose, an 
objective pronoun is used with the verb, to show distinctly what is 
the body to which the part spoken of belongs ; as in, 

He has broken his arm, (he to himself II s'est casse le bras. 

has broken the arm.) 
Do not press my hand so much, (do not Ne me pressez pas tant la main. 

to me press the hand so much.) 
Thank God for having saved your life, Remerciez Dieu de vans avoir sauv6 la 



(thank God for having saved to you 
the life.) 



vie. 



PRONOUN. 169 

It will be necessary to cut off your leg, 1^ faudra qu'on vous coupe la jambe t 
if they wish to save your life, (it will si l'on veut vous sauver la vie 
be necessary to cut off the leg to 
you, if they wish to save the life to 
you.) 

If, in the first sentence, the article the were used alone, there would 
be ambiguity ; for by saying simply, he has broken the arm, one does 
not see what arm has been broken ; but the ambiguity disappears by 
the use of the pronoun himself, preceded by the preposition to ; for if 
the person spoken of has broken something to himself, and that some- 
thing is the arm, it is clear that it is his arm. 

The second sentence, with the article the alone, would also be 
ambiguous, for nothing would show what hand should not be pressed 
so much ; — but with the addition of the pronoun, the ambiguity dis- 
appears ; for if I tell a person not to press something too much to me, 
and that something be the hand, it is clear that I mean my hand. 

Should the article the be used alone in the third sentence, it would 
not appear what life was saved ; because one might as well thank 
God for having saved the life of any one else, as his own ; — but by 
using the pronoun vous with the verb, it becomes evident that if 
T ought to thank God for having saved something to me, and that 
something is life, that life is mine. 

The same mode of reasoning is applicable to the last sentence, and 
shows how the rule we have given in the first part of this chapter 
should be applied. 

Remark. When the noun expressing a part of our body, or any 
of our mental faculties, is qualified by an adjective other than droit 
or gauche, right or left, the possessive pronoun should be used in 
French, as in English, with or without the personal objective pro- 
noun ; as in, 

What ! you have had your beautiful Quoi ! vous vous etes fait couper votre 
arm cut off 1 beau bras ? or, 

Quoi ! vous avez fait couper votre beau 
bras? 
Why did you have her little tooth Pourquoi lui avez-vous fait arracher sa 
pulled out *? petite dent ? or, 

Pourquoi avez-vous fait arracher sa 
petite dent? 

OF CASES IN WHICH THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN USED IN ENGLISH SHOULD ALSO 
BE EMPLOYED IN FRENCH. 

348. There are cases in which, by using the article the alone before 
nouns expressing a part of our body, the sentence is ambiguous, and 
which do not admit of a personal pronoun being placed before the 
15 



170 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

verb, as in the preceding chapter, in order to destroy that ambiguity , 
it then becomes necessary to use the possessive pronoun in French as 
is done in English ; as in, 

I see my leg swelling. Je vois ma jambe qui enfle, (and not la 

jambe qui m'enfle.) 
He gave him his hand to kiss. II lui donna sa main a baiser. 

She boldly gave her arm to the sur- Elle donna hardiment son bras au chirur- 

geon. gien. 

He loses all his blood. II perd tout son sang. 

In the first instance, I may see my neighbor's leg swelling, as well 
as my own ; and the sentence je vois la jambe qui m'enfle not being 
French, the possessive pronoun should be used, to relieve the ambi- 
guity. 

In the second, the person spoken of could give the hand of some- 
body else to kiss. 

In the third, the lady could take the arm of another person to the 
surgeon. 

In the last, the meaning would not be complete without the pos- 
sessive pronoun ; — and in none of these three last cases would the 
construction of the language admit of a personal objective pronoun 
being used to relieve the ambiguity caused by the use of the article. 

349. But we say, in a familiar manner, 

Give me your arm, Donnez-moi le bras, 

although another arm could be given instead of that asked for ; 
because the persons speaking, in such cases, are so situated as to 
leave no doubt in the mind as to the arm which one wishes to have. 

350. Usage, in many instances, requires that the possessive pro- 
noun should be employed where no possible ambiguity could arise 
from the use of the article ; as in, 

He always finds himself on his legs. II se trouve toujours sur ses jambes. 

I saw it with my own eyes. Je l'ai vu de mes propres yeux. 

I heard it with my own ears. Je l'ai entendu de mes propres oreilhs. 

For a man cannot find himself on any other legs but his own, or 
see with others' eyes and hear with others' ears. 

351. It is also customary, when speaking of a disease which has 
become periodical, to use the possessive pronoun before the noun which 
designates that disease ; as in, 

My headache has tormented me the Ma migraine m'a tourment£ toute la 
whole day. journee. 



PRONOUN. 171 

I have my usual pain in my leg. J'ai mon mal dejambe. 

I have a sore throat, as usual. J'ai mun mal de gorge. 

As if a man could be actually tormented by the headache of 
another person, or experience a pain in another person's leg- or throat, 
the possessive pronoun shows, in cases similar to the above, that the 
diseases spoken of are not merely accidental. 



OF CASES IN WHICH THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN, BEING USED WITH 
A NOUN FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE PRONOUN, IS EXPRESSED IN 
FRENCH BY THE ARTICLE. 

352. Whenever a possessive pronoun is used in English with a 
noun preceding a relative pronoun, which is itself followed by a 
nominative pronoun of the same person as the possessive, this pos- 
sessive pronoun is expressed, in French, by the article ; as in, 

Give me my pocketbook that I bought Donnez-moi le portefeuille que j'ai 

in New York. achete a New York. 

How do you like your carriage which Comment trouvez-vous la voiture que 

you have received from France 1 vous avez fait venir de France 1 

Where have you put my stockings that Ou avez-vous mis les bas que j'ai rac- 

I mended this morning 1 commodes ce matin 1 

Although sentences constructed in this way do not always appear 
sufficiently clear, the language does not admit of any other construc- 
tion ; and if the person spoken to should be in doubt, as might be the 
case, in the first and last sentences, about the thing spoken of, that 
doubt would cease by his asking, Which pocketbook'? What 
stockings ? 



OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON, HIS, HER, ITS, 
AND THEIR, (APPLDZD TO THINGS.) 

353. The possessive pronouns of the third person singular and 
plural, when relating to persons, are used in French as they are in 
English, except in the cases mentioned above, in which the article is 
used in their stead ; but the pronouns its and their, (applied to 
things,) have no distinct equivalent in French, and present some dif- 
ficulties. 

35 i. (1.) Whenever its and their (applied to things) are employed 
in English in the same proposition as the noun to which they relate 



172 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

they are expressed in French by the pronouns of persons, son, sa, ses, 
leur, leurs ; as in, 

The country has its amusements. Le campagne a ses agrements. 

These languages have their beauties. Ces langues ont leurs beautes. 

Boston and its neighborhood present to Boston et ses environs presentent a 

the eve the finest prospect. l'ceil la plus belle perspective. 

Have "you seen Paris, its theatres, Avez-vous vu Paris, ses theatres, ses 

buildings, and amusements 1 edifices, et ses amusements 1 

355. (2.) The pronouns its and their are also expressed by son, sa, 
ses, leur, and leurs, whenever they are used before a noun governed 
by a preposition, and referring to something mentioned before or 
after ; as in, 

It is on account of its climate, soil, and C'est a cause de son climat, de son sol, 

productions, that France is so much et de ses productions, que la France 

admired by foreigners. est tant admiree des etrangers. 

The water was so high that in its L'eau etait si haute que dans sa course 

course it swept away several houses elle entraina plusieurs maisons et 

and trees. plusieurs arbres. 

356. (3.) The pronouns its and their are still expressed by son, 
sa, ses, leur, and leurs, when they are used before a noun qualified 
oy an adjective, although these pronouns do not stand in the same 
proposition as the noun to which they relate ; provided that noun, 
thus qualified, is the nominative of the next verb ; as in, 

This town is a delightful spot; its reg- Cette ville est un lieu charmant; ses 
ular buildings please me much, and batiments reguliers me plaisent beau- 
its peaceful inhabitants are very coup, et ses habitants paisibles sont 
amiable. tres aimables. 

357. (4.) The pronouns its and their should yet be expressed by 
son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, when the noun before which they are 
placed, not being qualified by an adjective, and not being in the same 
proposition as the antecedent of the pronoun, stands as the nominative 
or the object of a verb after which the proposition of is or may be 
used ; as in, 

This city is magnificent; I admire the Cette ville est magnifique; j ! 'admire la 

beauty of its streets and the splendor beaute de ses rues et la splendeur 

of its edifices. de ses edifices. 

London is a very fine city, although its Londres est une tres belle ville, quoique 

houses are brick-built. ses maisons soient de brique. 

358. (5.) But when the possessive pronouns it and their do not 
stand in the same proposition as their antecedents, and the preposition 
of de, does not precede or follow the verb of which the noun which 



PRONOUN. 173 

they qualify is the nominative or the object, those pronouns are 
expressed in French by the article the, and the personal pronoun en 
accompanies the verb of the proposition in which they stand ; as in, 

These trees are very old, but their Ces arbres sont tres vieux, mais les 

fruit is delicious. fruits en sont delicieux. 

Why do you not drink wine 1 Because Ponrquoi ne buvez-vous pas de vin 1 

I fear its effects. Parceque j'en redoute les effets. 

I admire this statue; its head is sub- J'admire cette statue; la tete en est 

lime. sublime. 

Greece was fond of war, although she La Grece aiinait la guerre, quoiqu'elle 

was aware of its danger. en connut les dangers. 

When we live in a country, we must Quand on vit dans un pays, il faut en 

follow its customs. suivre les usages. 

Philadelphia is a tine ci(y; its streets Philadelphie est une belle ville ; les rues 

are large and regularly built. en sont larges et bien baties. 

Although the preceding rules are considered by all grammarians as 
the laws of good language, many writers have set them aside ; but 
foreigners have no such privilege ; everything for them should be 
fixed and precise, and the rules we have just given will, in all cases, 
be a sure guide for them. 



QUESTIONS. 



333. What is an adjective pronoun % 

333. Into how many classes are the adjective possessive pronouns divided 1 

334. What are the possessive adjective pronouns of the first person singular 
and plural, which are always joined to a noun 1 

334. What are the possessive adjective pronouns of the second and third per- 
sons singular and plural, which are always joined to a noun '? 

335. When the pronouns our, your, and their, are used in English, before 
plural nouns, should diese nouns always be used in the plural, in French 1 In 
what case should they be used in the singular 1 

335. When the pronoun we is used in English, in reference to a single per- 
son, are the adjectives or participles relating to that pronoun used in the singu- 
lar or in the plural 1 And are the possessive pronouns our and your, connected 
with that plural pronoun we, expressed in French by the corresponding words, notre 
and votre. or by the pronouns of die first and second persons singular 1 

336. With what nouns do the possessive pronouns agree 1 with the possessor 
or the thin? or persons possessed 1 

337. When the possessive pronouns are used with a feminine noun beginning 
with a vowel or an h mute, are they used in the feminine or in the masculine 1 

338. Do the possessive pronouns follow the same rule as the article in refer- 
ence to their repetition ] 

339. When possessive pronouns are used with several nouns in the singular, 
separated by the conjunction and, should they be repeated before each 1 Is there 
any difference when the nouns are in the plural 1 

340. When these pronouns are used with several nouns united by or, in what 
cases are they repeated or omitted % 

341. When adjective possessive pronouns are used with a noun qualified by 

15* 



174 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



two adjectives united by and, when are they repeated before the second adjec- 
tive and when omitted 1 

342. When these pronouns are used with a noun qualified by two adjectives 
united by or, when are they repeated before the second adjective and when 
omitted 1 

343. What is the rule in reference to the use of the possessive adjective pro- 
noun of the first person singular, in French, with the nouns father, mother, brother, 
sister, friend, child, or children, &C.1 

344. What is the difference existing between the personal and possessive 
pronoun leur? 

345. 346. Whenever the possessive adjective pronouns my, thy, his, &c, are 
used in English before nouns expressing a part of the body, or any things belong- 
ing to our moral constitution, how are they expressed in French, when those 
nouns are not qualified by an adjective 1 

346. How are these pronouns expressed, when the nouns expressing a part 
of the body are qualified by an adjective 1 

347. If an ambiguity should arise from the use of the article alone, what 
should be done, in French, in order to keep the article and destroy the ambi- 
guity 1 

348. 349, 350. Are there not cases which require in French, as well as in 
English, the use of the adjective possessive pronoun before the class of nouns 
mentioned above 1 

351. When speaking of a pain or disease the return of which is periodical, 
is the article or possessive pronoun used before the noun expressing the disease 
itself, or the part of the body affected with it 1 

352. Are possessive adjective pronouns used in French as they are in 
English before nouns preceding a relative pronoun, when that relative pronoun 
is followed by a personal nominative pronoun of the same person as the posses- 
sive 1 

353. Have the possessive pronouns its and their, (applied to things,) an 
equivalent in French, distinct from his, her, and their, (applied to persons.) 

354. How are its and their expressed in French, when they are employed in 
the same proposition as the noun of things to which they relate 1 

355. How are these pronouns expressed when they are preceded by a prepo- 
sition, and the noun which they qualify relates to something mentioned before or 
after 1 

356. How are these pronouns expressed when they precede a noun qualified 
by an adjective, and they stand, or not, in the same proposition as their ante- 
cedent. 1 

367. How are these pronouns expressed when the noun which they precede 
is used with a verb, after which the preposition de, of, is or may be used in 
French 1 

358. When the pronouns its and their do not stand in the same proposition as 
their antecedent, and the preposition de, of, is not used before or after the verb 
of which the noun qualified by these pronouns is the nominative or the object, 
how are they expressed in French 1 



OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS WHICH ARE NEVER JOINED TO A NOUN. 

359. These pronouns may relate to one or several persons. Those 
which relate only to one person as the possessor, are, 

For the first person singular : 

Mine, le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes. 



PRONOUN. 175 

For die second person singular : 

Thine, le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes. 

For the third person singular : 

His, her, its, le sien, la sienne, les siens, les siennes. 

Le mien, le tien, le sien, are singular masculine. 

La mienne, la tienne, la sienne, " feminine. 

Les mieus, les tiens, les siens, are plural masculine. 
Les mieunes, les tiennes, les siennes, " feminine. 

Those which relate to several persons possessing only one object, 
are, 

First person piura. : Ours, le notre, la notre. 

Second " " Yours, le votre, la votre. 

Third " " Theirs, le leur, la leur. 

Le notre, le votre, le leur, are masculine 

La notre, la votre, la leur, are feminine. 

Those, in fine, which relate to several persons possessing several 
objects, are, 



First person plural : 


Ours, 


les notres. 


Second " " 


Yours, 


les votres. 


Third " 


Theirs, 


les leurs. 



Les notres, les votres, and les leurs, are of either gender. 

These pronouns are never joined to a noun, but they relate to one, 
and cannot be used unless the noun to which they relate has been 
expressed before ; as, 

I have sold my horse; have you still J'ai vendu mon cheval; avez-vous en- 

yours 1 core le votre? 

You destroy your health; I keep mine. Vous detruisez votre sante; je conserve 

la mienne. 

They agree in number and gender with the noun to which they 
relate. 

360. Merchants, when they correspond with each other, generally 
do not observe this rule ; nothing is more common among them than 
beginning an answer to a letter by this barbarous phrase : 

I have received yours dated such a J'ai recu la votre datee de tel jour 
day. &c. 

The word lettre not being already expressed, the pronoun cannot be 
used ; the phrase should be turned thus ; 

J'ai recu votre lettre datee, &c. 



176 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

361. The personal pronouns are employed instead of the pos- 
sessive, when nouns of things are used instead of nouns of persons ; 



There is no better writer than he. II n'y a pas de meilleure plume que lui. 

There is not in the world a better II n'y a pas au monde de meilleure 
fencer than you. epee que vous. 

In these two sentences, plume is used for ecrivain, (writer,) and 
epee for tireur, (fencer.) 

But if those two nouns were taken in their natural meaning, the 
possessive pronouns should be employed ; as, 

There are no better pens than yours. II n'y a pas de meilleures plumes que 

les votrcs. 
There is no better sword than yours. II n'y a pas de meilleure epee que la 

vbtre. 

If, in the two first sentences, the possessive pronoun was used 
instead of the personal, their meaning would be, 

There is no better pen than your pen; 
There is no better sword than your sword ; 

which is not the idea which the speaker has in mind. 

362. The adjective possessive pronouns are never related to a noun 
taken indefinitely ; as in sentences like the following : 

He is not disposed to give pleasure, II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, et 

and I am disposed to be benevolent. le mien est d'etre bienfaisant. 

In the first ages of the world, the Dans les premiers ages du monde, 

father of each family governed it chaque pere de famille gouvernait 

with absolute power. la sienne avec un pouvoir absolu. 

Because a noun employed without an article, or without the equiva- 
lent of an article, cannot be followed by a pronoun referring to that 
noun. The above sentences should be expressed as follows : 

II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, et moi, je suis d'une humeur bienfaisante. 
Dans les premiers ages du monde, chaque p8re de famille gouvernait ses enfants 
avec un pouvoir absolu. m 



PRONOUN. 177 

OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, HIS, HERS, OURS, 
YOURS, AND THEIRS. 

OF THE IDIOMATICAL EXPRESSIONS A, (OR THAT) FRIEND OF MINE, A (OR THAT) 
BOOK OF YOURS, &c. 

363. Whenever the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, are 
used after a noun governing the preposition of, as, A friend of mine, 
Ttco books of yours, &c, they form, with that noun, an idiomatical 
expression, which cannot be rendered literally in French, and should 
be turned by : One of my friends, Two of your books; as in, 

I have found two books of yours among J'ai trouve deux de vos livres parmi les 

mine. miens. 

I met this morning with a friend of J'ai rencontre ce matin un de mes amis 

mine that I had not seen for ten que je n'avais pas vu depuis dix 

years. ans. 

364. But if the noun is preceded by one of the demonstrative pro- 
nouns this, that, these, or those, as in, That friend of mine, Those books 
of yours, the sentence should be altered, and turned by, my friend, 
your books, and the possessive adjective pronouns my, your, should 
be expressed according to the rules given in the paragraph 352 ; as 
in the following sentences : 

What has become of that friend of Qu'est devenu votre ami, M. C*** 1 

yours, Mr. C*** » 
What lias become of that friend of Qu'est devenu Vami que vous vantiez 

yours, Mr. C***, whom you praised tant, M. C*** 1 

so much 1 



OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, HIS, &c, USED WITH THE VERB 
TO BE, TO EXPRESS AN IDEA OF RIGHT, DUTY, OR TURN. 

365. Whenever any of the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, 
&c, is used with the verb to be, to express an idea of right or duty, 
it forms with that verb an idiomatical expression, which cannot be 
rendered literally in French ; instead of the possessive pronoun, 
the preposition to is used, followed by an objective pronoun, of the 
same person and number as the possessive pronoun, and the prepo- 
sition of, de, is used after the objective*pronoun, before the next verb ; 
as in, 

It is mine to command, and yours to C'est a moi de commander, et d vous 
obey. d'obeir. 

The same French expression, Cest d, moi, is sometimes used to 



178 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

convey an idea of turn ; in such case, instead of the preposition of, the 
preposition to, &, is used before the verb ; as in, 

It is my turn to play, and not yours. C'est a moi d jouer, et non pas d vous. 



OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, HIS, &c, USED WITH THE VERB 
TO BE, AND CONVEYING AN IDEA OF PROPERTY. 

366. When the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, are used 
with the verb to be, to convey an idea of property, as in, Is this book 
yours? Yes, it is mine; they are expressed in French in two differ- 
ent ways. If the thing spoken of, as book, in this case, is pointed 
out singly, and the sentence signify, Does this book belong to you ? 
the answer, It is mine, only asserts the right of the owner to the 
property of the book, and is expressed by, C'est & moi, using a per- 
sonal objective pronoun of the same person as the English possessive 
pronoun, with the verb to be, followed by the preposition to. 

But if there were several books, and the person who speaks should 
wish to ascertain which one is the property of the person spoken to, 
the answer, Yes, it is mine, would not only assert the right of the 
owner to the book spoken of, but would do it to the exclusion of the 
others ; in cases similar to this, the possessive pronoun mine is 
expressed literally in French, and the answer should be, Oui, c'est le 
mien; as in, 

Is this watch yours 1 No, it is not Cette montre, est-elle a vous 1 Non, 

mine. (Meaning only, it does not elle n'est pas d moi. 

belong to me.) 

Is this your watch 1 ? No, it is not Est-ce la. votre montre 1 Non, ce n'est 

mine. (Meaning not only that the pas la mienne. 

watch is not mine, but there exists 

another watch somewhere, which is 

mine.) 

Are these horses yours 1 Yes, they Ces chevaux, sont-ils a vous 1 Oui, ils 

are mine. sont d moi. 

Are these your horses 1 Yes, they are Sont-ce la vos chevaux 1 Oui, ce sont 

mine. les miens. 



OF THE ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS OF MY OWN, OF HIS OWN, Sec. 

367. The English expressions of my own, of his own, &c, cannot 
be rendered literally in French ; they should be translated according 
to the meaning of the sentence, by some equivalent expressions, such 
as : which belongs to me, to me, of my composition, of me ; or any 



PRONOUN. 179 

other conveying the same meaning as that of the English sentence ; 
as in, 



I have a farm of my own in Normandy. J'ai eu Normandie une ferme a moi, or 

qui?n'appartic?it en propre. 
I played last night a piece of my own. J'ai joue hier soir un rnorceau de moi, 

or de ma composition. 
Has not your sister a horse of her Votre sceur n'a-t-elle pas un cheval d 

own 1 elle. 

Do not meddle with this; it is no con- Ne vous melez pas de cela; ce la ne 
cern of yours, (this does not concern vous regarde pas. 
you.) 



QUESTIONS 



359. How are the possessive pronouns of the second class, those which are 
never joined to a noun, expressed in French 1 

359. Should these pronouns, as well as the article which precedes them, agree 
in number and gender with the noun of which they take the place *? 

360. Can these possessive pronouns be used without the noun of which they 
take the place, having been expressed before 1 

361. When nouns of things are idiomatically used, instead of nouns of per- 
sons, can the possessive pronouns be used, in French 1 What pronouns are 
used instead of the possessive 1 

362. Can possessive pronouns be used when referring to a noun used indefi- 
nitely 1 

363. How should be turned, in French, expressions similar to the following : 
A friend of mine? 

364. That friend of yours ? 

365. It is mine to do this, and yours to do that ? 

365. It is my turn to do this ? 

366. Is this book yours? Yes, it is mine? Is this your book? Yes, it is 
mine ? 

366. What difference is there between the meaning of these two last sen- 
tences 1 

367. How should expressions like the following be rendered in French : 
Have you a horse of your own? I played a concerto of my own? This is no con- 
cern of yours ? 



OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

368. Demonstrative pronouns are words the functions of which are 
not to name the object spoken of, or to specify it by its qualities, but 
to point it out among others of the same kind. 

Demonstrative pronouns are, in French, divided into seven classes. 

1st. Those which always precede a noun. 

2nd. Those which alwavs follow a noun. 



ISO 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



3d. Those which always precede a preposition, or a relative pro 
noun, and relate to definitive nouns. 

4th. Those which, relating to nouns used definitely, are never fol- 
lowed hy a noun, a preposition, or a relative pronoun, and signify, in 
English, this ere one, that there one. 

5th. Those which relate to things or ideas before expressed in an 
indefinite manner. 

6th. Those which are used with the verb to be. 

7th. Those which, relating to some indefinite idea, precede a 
relative pronoun, and form with that relative pronoun a compound 
expression, expressed in English by what, or which. 

OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ALWAYS PLACED BEFORE A NOUN. 

369. When the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those, 
precede a noun, they are expressed in French in four different ways, 
according to the number and gender and the first letter of the noun 
following. 

This or that, ce, is used before a noun singular masculine, beginning 
with a consonant or h aspirated. 
" cet, is used before a noun singular masculine, beginning 
with a vowel or an h mute. 
" " cette, is used before all feminine nouns in the singular. 

These or those, ces, is used before all plural nouns ; as, 

This book. Ce Zivre, 

This hamlet. Ce Aameau. 

This work. Cet ouvrage. 

That man. Cet homme. 

That woman. Cette femme. 

These men or women, Ces hommes et ces femmes. 

These pronouns relate equally to persons and things. 

370. Whenever this and that, these and those, are used in English 
before a single noun, as these pronouns are, in such case, expressed 
by the same words in French, they should be rendered, in translating, 
by such and such, which will thus convey the meaning of the 
English; as, 

You seem to like to talk but to have an Vous semblez n'aimer a causer que 
opportunity of mentioning this or pour avoir l'occasion de citer tel ou 
that author. tel auteur. 

These pronouns may also be rendered in French by employing ce, 



pronoun. 181 

cet, cette, or ces, before the noun, and placing the pronouns ci and /A 
after it ; as, 

Which do you prefer, this or that Le quel preferez-vous, cet auteur-ci ou 
author 1 cet auteur-ld ? or, cet auteur-ci ou 

celui-ld? or again, Le quel de ces 
auteurs preferez-vous, celui~ci ou 
celui-ld ? 

OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS WHICH ALWAYS FOLLOW A NOUN. 

371. These pronouns are two in number, and have no other 
equivalent in English than the words here and there, placed after a 
noun by apposition, to point it out among others ; they are expressed 
in French by ci for here, and la for there; in old times, they were used 
by themselves, and many examples may be found in our best writers ; 
Madame de Sevigne made frequent use of them. She wrote, in a 
letter dated on the 16th of March, 1672, 

We shall see each other between this Nous nous verrons entre ci et Paques. 
day and Easter. 

But in our days, this pronoun ci is only used after nouns of persons 
and things ; Id, is sometimes employed alone, but it is only elliptically ; 



I dislike this man, and that woman Je n'aime ni cet homme-ci, ni cette 

also. femme-la. 

He is there alone. II est la seul. 

In the first example, ci refers to the nearest object, and la to the 
furthest. 

In the second, la, standing by itself, means, in that place there, 
dans ce lieu la. 

OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. WHICH, RELATING TO A NOUN USED IN A 
DEFINITE SENSE, OR PRECEDED BY THE ADJECTIVE A, ALWAYS PRECEDE A 
PREPOSITION, OR A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

372. We have already mentioned that class of pronouns, when 
speaking of personal nominative pronouns used in English before a 
relative pronoun (paragraph 270 ;) we will only state here that the 
demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those, are expressed by 
the same words as he, she, and they, in the same case ; that is to say, 

This and that, by celui, relating to a noun singular masculine. 
11 " celle, " " " feminine. 

16 



182 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

These and those, by ceux, relating to a noun plural masculine. 
" " celles, " " " feminine. 

Thus, speaking of a book, which is masculine, we say : 

That of my brother, Celui de mon frere. 

Speaking of a cow, which is feminine, we say : 

That of my brother, Celle de mon frdre. 

Speaking of books, we say : 

Those of my brother, Ceux de mon fre*re. 

Speaking of cows, we say : 

Those of my brother, Celles de mon frere. 

This pronoun is used in speaking of persons and things, and, as we 
see by the preceding examples, agrees in number and gender with the 
noun to which it relates ; as in, 

He who does not know how to behave Celui qui ne sait pas se conduire, ne 

himself, can never command others. peut commander aux autres. 

I want a light; bring me that which is J'ai besoin d'une lumierej apportez-moi 

on the table. celle qui est sur la table. 

I will never forgive that of your broth- Je ne pardonnerai jamais a celui de vos 

ers who has offended me. freres qui m'a offense. 

Give me that of your books which you Donnez-moi celui de vos livres que 

do not like. vous ne voulez pas. 

373. The pronoun celui should not be separated by too many 
words from the noun to which it relates ; thus, the following sentence 
is incorrect : 

Courage, a quality peculiar to the Le courage, cette qualite des armees 
French armies, always became fruit- Francaises, devenait toujours inutile 
less, and often fatal, because pru- et souvent fatal, parceque la pru- 
dence was not that of our councils, dence n'etait pas celle de nos con- 

seils. 

This sentence is not incorrect because the pronoun celle could pos- 
sibly relate to any other noun than qualite, but because the mind is 
not at once impressed with the relation existing between these two 
words ; the latter part of this sentence should be altered in its con- 
struction, as follows : 

Parceque la prudence ne dirigeait pas nos conseils; or, parce que la prudence 
n'etait pas la qualite de nos conseils, (avoiding the use of the pronoun.) 



PRONOUN. 183 

374. The pronoun celui, when used as the antecedent of a relative 
pronoun, cannot be in French separated from that pronoun, as it is 
the case in English, unless it is by a noun or pronoun used with the 
preposition o/as its object. Thus the following sentence, 

They are mistaken who think that happiness consists in riches, 

should be altered in its construction ; as. 

They who think that happiness consists in riches, are mistaken; 

and expressed by, 

Ceux qui croient que le bonheur consiste dans les richesses, se trompent. 

Whichever of you will deceive me, Celui de vous qui me trompera, s'en 

shall repent it. repentira. 

Whichever of your brothers will go to Celui de vos freres qui ira a la ville, 

town, shall bring back my horse. raraenera mon cheval. 

In poetry or in elevated style, the first sentence could be con- 
structed as follows : 

lis se trompent, ceux qui croient que le They are mistaken, those who believe, 
bonheur consiste dans les richesses, &c. ; 

using the same construction as the English, with this difference, that 
the demonstrative pronoun those is prefixed to the relative, because 
in French a nominative personal pronoun can never be the antecedent 
of a relative. 

375. Whenever the demonstrative pronouns of this class are 
employed in a particular sense, at the beginning of a sentence, they 
always relate to a noun already expressed or understood, or men- 
tioned afterwards, and may be used in either gender and number ; 



She (of you ladies, understood) who Celle qui saura bien sa lecon, sera re- 
will know her lesson well, shall be compensee. 
rewarded. I 

They or those who know their lesson, Celles qui sauront leur lecon, seront re- 
will be rewarded. compensees. 

Those who have distinguished them- Ceux qui se sont distingues pendant la 

selves during the battle, shall receive bataille, recevront la croix d'hon- 

the cross of honor. neur. 

376. But when these pronouns are used in a general sense, and are 
only intended to signify the person, or the persons, they cannot be 
used at all in French, their meaning being too vague and indefinite to 



184 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

be expressed by a pronoun of this class ; the sentence should then be 
altered, and a noun used instead of the pronoun ; as in, 

Those to whom I was speaking when Les personnes, or les dames, a qui je 
you called me, are charming ladies. parlais quand vous m'avez appele, 

sont des femmes charmantes. 
Those widi whom you saw me in the Les personnes, or les messieurs, avec 
street, are officers in my regiment. qui vous m'avez vu dans la rue, sont 

des officiers de mon regiment ; or, les 
officiers avec qui vous m'avez vu 
dans la rue, appartiennent a mon re- 
giment. 

377. The pronouns which belong to this class can never be used in 
relation to a noun which is not preceded by the article the, or the 
adjective a; thus, the following sentence, 

That man is not wanting in courage, but that of his brother is far superior, 

cannot be translated literally, by, 

Cet homme ne manque pas de courage, mais celui de son frere est beaucoup plus 
remarquable, 

because celui refers to courage, which is neither preceded by the or 
a. It should be turned differently ; as, for instance, by, 

Mais son frere est beaucoup plus brave, 

so as to avoid using the demonstrative pronoun at all. 

378. The pronouns of this class can never be modified, either by an 
adjective, a past participle, or any expression of a similar nature ; 
thus, in the following sentences, 

Among the letters we have just received, give me that which comes from 

England, 
Among these pens, give me that which is good to write with, 

the expressions which comes, and which is good, could not be replaced 
in French by the past participle come, and the adjective good, alone ; 
and the following sentences, 

Parmi les lettres que nous avons recues, donnez-moi celle venue d'Angleterre ; 
and, Parmi ces plumes, donnez-moi celle bonne pour ecrire, 

would be incorrect ; they ought to be constructed in French as they 
are in English ; as, 

Parmi les lettres que nous avons recues, donnez-moi celle qui vient d'Angleterre. 
Parmi ces plumes, donnez-moi celle qui est bonne pour ecrire. 



PRONOUN. 1S5 

379. The pronouns of this class may sometimes be elegantly 
suppressed in sentences like the following : 

He who wishes to be feared, is seldom Qui veut se faire craindre, est rarement 

loved. aime. 

If the death of Socrates was that of a Si la fin de Socrate est d'un sage, la 

wise man, that of Christ was that of mort de Jesus-Christ est d'un Dieu. 

a God. 

380. Whenever, at the beginning of a sentence, such is used for he, 
she. they, those, &c, it is rendered in French as these last pronouns 
would be ; as in, 

Such as seem to be happy, are not Ceux qui semblent heureux, ne le sont 
always so. pas toujours. 

OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, WHICH, RELATING TO NOUNS USED DEFINITELY, 
ARE NEVER FOLLOWED EITHER BY A NOUN, A PREPOSITION, OR A RELATIVE 
PRONOUN, AND SIGNIFY IN ENGLISH, THIS ERE ONE, THAT THERE ONE. 

381. The demonstrative pronouns of this class are composed of those 
of the two last ; that is to say, of the word celui, followed by ci or lit. 
They point out a person or thing, and have the meaning, celui-ci of this 
ere one, celui-lil of that there one. They agree in number and gender 
with the noun to which they relate, and are expressed as follows : 



This (one,) 


masc. sing. 


celui-ci, 


that (one,) 


celui-la. 


u 


fem. " 


celle-ci, 


" 


celle-la. 


These (ones,) 


masc. plnr. 


ceux-ci, 


those (ones,) 


ceux-la. 


C( 


fem. " 


celles-ci, 


" 


celles-la. 



Thus, speaking of two men, we say, 

This is a good one, but that one is Celui-ci est bon, mais celui-ld est va.6- 
wicked. chant. 

Speaking of two ladies, 

This one is handsome, but that one is Celle-ci est belle, mais celle-ld est laide. 
ugly. 

Speaking of horses, 

These are gentle, but those are restive. Ceux-ci sont doux, mais ceux4d sont 

retifs. 

Speaking of peaches, 

These are ripe, but those are green. Celles-ci sont mures, mais celles-ld sont 

vertes. 

In sentences similar to these, the pronoun celui-ci designates the 
nearest objects, and celui-ld, the most distant. 
16* 



186 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE PRONOUNS CELUI-CI AND CELUI-LA, USED IN RELATION TO ONE NOUN 

ONLY. 

382. Whenever the demonstrative pronouns of this class are pre- 
ceded by one noun only, celui-ci and celui-lil are indifferently used in 
reference to that noun ; as in, 

Lovely spring succeeds gloomy winter ; Apres sombre hiver gai printems ; 

after fair weather comes rain ; fine apres joli terns triste pluie ; apres 

weather succeeds to this again. celle-ci le beau temps. 

Had I written this book in a dogmatic Si j'avais ecrit cet ouvrage d'un style 

style, learned people only would dogmatique, les savants seuls l'au- 

have read it, and these had no need raient lu, et ceux-ld n'en avaient pas 

of it. besoin. 



OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS CELUI-CI AND CELUI-LA, RELATING TO 
NO NOUN ALREADY EXPRESSED. 

383. When a sentence is intended to express the enumeration of 
several persons or things, the pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld may be 
used, without relating to any noun already expressed ; as in, 

Applauded by all, but also polite and Applaudie de tous, mais a son tour 

affable to all, she anticipated the affable et civile a tous, elle pre venait 

wishes of some, and replied politely ceux-ci, et repondait honnetement a 

to others. ceux-ld. 

In cases similar to these, celui-ci relates to what comes first to our 
mind, and celui-ld, to what comes next. 

OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS CELUI-CI AND CELUI-LA, FOLLOWED BY 
A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 

384. Celui-ci and celui-ld are not generally followed by a relative 
pronoun when used as nominatives ; the pronoun celui, and the inci- 
dental sentence of which the relative pronoun is the nominative, being 
sufficient to point out the person or thing spoken of; but some of our 
good writers have made use of them in such cases; as in, 

He who lives unknown by the world, Celui-ld qui \it ignore, vitheureux; or, 
lives happy. Celui-ld vit heureux, qui vit ignore. 

We would not advise foreigners to use this privilege, which is only 
tolerated in sententious expressions like the preceding ; to dispense 
with the pronouns ci and Id is far preferable. 

385. But when the pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld are employed as 
the object of a verb, they may very properly be followed by a relative 

ronoun, provided this pronoun does not form, with the following verb, 



PRONOUN. 187 

an incidental proposition, used in apposition to the demonstrative 
pronoun ; as in, 

I brought you a book, but your mother Je vous ai apporte un livre, mais votre 
told me this was not the one you mere m'a dit que ce n'est pas celui-ld 
wanted. dont vous avez besoin. 

Speaking of a lady, 

Is this the one you wish to marry 1 Est-ce celle-ci que vous voulez epouser 1 ? 

Speaking of two men, 

Is this die one who has insulted my Est-ce celui-ci qui a insulte ma sceur 1 
sister *? 

But the following sentence would be incorrect : Speaking of boys, 

Give this book to the one who is sit- Donnez ce livre a celui-ci qui est assis 
ing on the sofa. sur le sofa. 

Because, qui est assis sur le sofa forming an incidental proposition, 
which points out the person spoken of, the pronoun ci, which per- 
forms the same function, becomes useless, and should be omitted ; 
we should say thus : 

Donnez ce livre a celui qui est assis sur le sofa. 

OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS THIS AND THAT, RELATING TO AN IDEA 
ALREADY EXPRESSED, OR TO THINGS ALLUDED TO IN AN INDEFINITE MANNER. 

386. Whenever the demonstrative pronouns this and that are used 
to recall to the mind an idea already expressed, or allude to things 
taken indefinitely, they are expressed in French by ceci and cela. 
When used together, ceci refers to the nearest, and cela to the most 
distant idea or thing ; and when used singly, ceci refers to what is to 
follow, and cela to what has been already mentioned. These pro- 
nouns have no reference to the nature of the thing which they recall 
to the mind ; they represent it as a substance, and when applied to an 
idea, they only point it out as having been expressed before ; this 
indefinite character deprives them of number and gender. Thus, we 
say, 

This is only laughable, but that is hor- Ceci n'est que risible, mais cela est 

rible. horrible. 

What is this 1 a book; and that 1 a Qu'est-ce que c'est que ceci? C'est un 

knife. livre; et cela? un couteau. 



188 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Whenever this and that are used in Eng.ish before a present parti- 
ciple, the construction should be altered, this mode of expression not 
being admitted in French ; as in, 

This being your opinion, [since this is Puisque c'est (or, telle est) votre 
your opinion,] I esteem you no opinion, je cesse de vous estimer. 
longer. 



OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS THIS, THAT, THESE, AND THOSE, AND PER- 
SONAL PRONOUNS HE, SHE, IT, AND THEY, USED WITH THE VERB TO BE, 
WHEN THIS VERB IS FOLLOWED, EITHER BY A NOUN PRECEDED BY THE OR A, 
A PERSONAL PRONOUN, OR A VERB. 

387. Whenever any of the demonstrative pronouns, or any of the 
personal nominative pronouns of the third person singular or plural, 
is used as the nominative of the verb to be, and this verb has for its 
object either a verb, a personal pronoun, or a noun preceded by the 
article the, or any other word performing the same function, or by the 
adjective a, those pronouns are generally expressed in French by the 
demonstrative pronoun ce, and the verb to be is also generally used in 
the singular, unless it is immediately followed by a plural noun, or a 
personal pronoun of the third person plural, standing as the nomina- 
tive of the next verb, or simplv as the direct attribute of the verb to 
be; as in, 

Do you see this poor cottage 1 this, or Voyez-vous cette pauvre cabane 1 c'est 

that, is all his fortune. toute sa fortune. 

A little house and a few pieces of furni- Une petite maison et quelques meubles, 

ture, these are all his fortune. c'est la tout sa fortune. 

Who is that gentleman 1 He is my Qui est ce monsieur 1 C'est I'avocat 

father's lawyer. de mon pere. 

Do you see that officer 1 He is a cap- Voyez-vous cet officier 1 C'est un 

tain in my regiment. capitaine de mon regiment. 

Do you know this lady 1 She is my Connaissez-vous cette dame 1 C'est la 

brother-in-law's sister. sceur de mon beau-frere. 

Look at those pretty children; they are Regardez ces jolis enfants; ce sont les 

my father's pupils. eleves de mon pere. 

Who has committed the robbery 1 Is Qui a commis le vol 1 Sont-ce ces 

it these men'? Yes, it is they. homm.es? Oui, ce sont eux. 

It is we who have assisted this poor C'est nous qui avons secouru cette 

family. pauvre famille. 

I have two things in contemplation; J'ai deux choses en vue; c'est de me 

these are, to get married and to retire marier, et de me retirer a la cam- 

into the country. pagne. 

388. We have employed the expression generally, when speaking- 
of the number of the verb to be, and of its nominative, ce, because 
writers have sometimes used the nominative pronouns il, elle, Us, elles, 
where that verb is followed by a noun preceded by the article the, and 



PRONOUN. 189 

have used the verb to be in the singular, although it is followed by a 
plural noun, or a personal pronoun of the third person plural ; as in, 

It is not the Trojans, it is Hector, Ce n'est pas les Troyens, c'est Hector, 

whom they pursue. qu'on poursuit. 

Who lias done that 1 It is they. Qui a fait cela 1 C'est eux. 

Who is this nobleman 1 He is the Qui est ce grand signeur 1 H est le 

chamberlain of the king. chambellan du roi. 

The first sentence is correct, because the plural noun Trojans is the 
object, and not the nominative, of the verb poursuit. 

But we do not advise foreigners to follow the example given in the 
others. The verb to be, used in the singular, before a plural pronoun 
of the third person, is a fault, and the pronoun ce in the last, would 
be more in conformity with the genius of the language. 



OF THE USE OF THE PRONOUN CE, WITH THE VERB TO BE, IN INTERROGATIVE 

SENTENCES. 

389. Whenever the sentence in which the pronoun ce is required 
as a nominative for the verb to be is either affirmative or negative, 
that pronoun may be employed in all the tenses of that verb ; but if 
the sentence were interrogative, euphony only permits of its being 
used in the following tenses and persons ; est-ce, sont-ce, (third person 
singular and plural of the present of the indicative,) etait-ce, (third 
person singular of the imperfect,) fut-ce, (third person singular of 
the preterit definite,) sera-ce, (third person singular of the future 
absolute,) serait-ce and seraient-ce, (third persons singular and plural 
of the conditional present,) as in, 

Is it your father who came this mora- Est-ce votre pere qui est venu ce 

in« 1 matin 1 

Are these the horses which you brought Sont-ce la les chevaux que vous avez 

from England 1 amenes d'Angleterre 1 

Was it your brother who was speaking Etait-ce votre frere qui parlait quand je 

when I came in 1 suis entre 1 

Was it your colonel who presented the Fut-ce votre colonel qui presenta la 

petition to Napoleon 1 petition a Napoleon 1 

Will it be he who will be appointed Sera-ce lui qui sera nomme ministre de 

secretary of the navy 1 la marine 1 
Were he my best friend, I should con- Serait-ce mon meilleur ami, je le con- 
demn him. damnerais. 
Were they my own children, I would Seraient-ce mes propres enfants, je ne 

not spare them. les epargnerais pas. 

Therefore, furent-ce, seront-ce, a-ce etc, avait-ce ete, &c, although 
they are found in some ancient writers, are now proscribed in good 
language as contrary to euphony. 



190 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE NUMBER OP THE VERB TO BE, WHEN, HAVING THE PRONOUN CE FOR 
ITS NOMINATIVE, THAT VERB IS FOLLOWED BY SEVERAL NOUNS IN THE SIN- 
GULAR. 

390. Whenever the verb to be, having the pronoun ce for its nomi- 
native, is followed by several nouns in the singular, practice varies. 
Some grammarians admit of the verb to be being used in the plural, 
but the generality of our good writers only use the singular, and we 
should advise foreigners to follow their example ; thus, although we 
find in Condillac, 

What are the three principal Christian Quelles sont les trois vertus theolo- 
virtues 1 They are faith, hope, and gales % Ci sont la foi Vesperance et 
charity, la charite, — 

with the verb to be used in the plural, we should prefer the singu- 
lar, as in all similar cases ; as in, 

It is rain and heat which make the C'est la pluie et la chaleur qui fecondent 

earth fertile. la terre. 

It is truth and justice that ought to C'est la verite et la justice qui doivent 

dictate the decisions of a magistrate. servir de base aux decisions des 

magistrats. 

391. Whenever the verb to be is followed by several nouns of a dif- 
ferent number, euphony requires that the plural no an should come 
first, and the verb to be should be used in the plural ; as in, 

That story was told to me by the Ce sont les freres et la soeur de votre 
brothers and sister of your friend. ami qui m'ont fait cette histoire ; and 

not C'est la soeur et les freres. 

OF THE VERB TO BE, HAVING THE PRONOUN CE FOR ITS NOMINATIVE, WHEN 
IT IS SEPARATED BY A PREPOSITION FROM A NOUN IN THE PLURAL, OR FROM 
A PERSONAL PRONOUN OF THE THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 

392. Whenever the verb to be, having the pronoun ce for its nomi- 
native, is followed by a preposition, it is invariably used in the sin- 
gular, whatever may be the number of the noun or pronoun which 
?omes after the preposition ; as in, 

It is from them that I expect this C'est d'eux qui j'attends cette faveur. 

favor. 

It is for the magistrates to watch over C'est aux magistrats de veiller a la 

the security of the inhabitants. securite des habitants. 



PRONOUN. 191 



OF THE EXPRESSION SI CE NEST, IF IT IS NOT, FOLLOWED BY A PLURAL 

NOUN. 

393. The expression si ce n'est, when used in the sense of except, 
is never used in the plural, even before a plural noun, because it 
performs the functions of a preposition which is always undeclinable ; 



Who will help me except my friends 1 Qui m'aidera si ce n'est mes amis? 
Who shall we love if not the ladies 1 Qui aimerons nous si ce n'est les 

femmes. 

OF THE NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS HE, SHE, IT, AND THEY, USED WITH THE VERB 
TO BE, WHEN THE VERB IS EITHER FOLLOWED BY AN ADJECTIVE, A NOUN 
USED AS AN ADJECTrVE, (THAT IS TO SAY, NOT PRECEDED BY THE OR A,) OR 
AN ADVERB OF QUALIFICATION. 

394. Whenever the verb to be, having for its nominative any of the 
personal pronouns he, she, it, or they, instead of being followed either 
by a pronoun, a noun preceded by the or a, or a verb, is followed 
either by an adjective, a noun used as an adjective, (that is to say, not 
preceded by the or a,) or an adverb of qualification, these nominative 
pronouns, instead of being expressed in French by ce, are rendered by 
one of the personal nominative pronouns, il, elle, Us, or elles, according 
to the nature of the sentence ; as in, 

It is worthy of a great nation to build II est digne d'une grande nation de 
hospitals for their wounded soldiers. construire des hopitaux pour sea 

guerriers invalides. 
Do not depend upon him; he is not a Ne comptez pas sur lui; il n'est pas 

man of his word. homme de parole. 

It is well to be generous, provided it is II est bien d'etre genereux, pourvu que 
not with other people's money. ce ne soit pas avec 1 'argent des 

autres. 

395. In these sentences, and in any others of the same nature, the 
pronouns he, she, it, or they, do not recal to the mind, — they do not point 
out nor refer to anything having been mentioned before. They are not 
demonstrative pronouns ; they are personal nominative pronouns, and, 
therefore, should be expressed as such ; but if, when using the imper- 
sonal expressions it is, it was, it will be, &c, the pronoun it should 
refer to something mentioned before, as is generally the case when 
answering questions or deducing consequences, then that pronoun 
should assume the character of a demonstrative pronoun, and should 
be expressed by ce, although the verb to be is followed by an adjec- 
tive ; as in, 

Is it not very difficult to learn French 1 N'est-il pas tres difficile d'apprendre le 
Yes, it is (that fact of learning Francais "? Oui, c'est tres difficile. 
French) very difficult, 



192 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Est il necessaire que nous allions en 
Europe 1 Oui, c'est necessaire. 

Oui, vous avez raison; nous devons 
faire la guerre a l'Angleterre ; c'est 



Is it necessary for us to go to Europe 1 

Yes, it is. 
Yes, you are right; we must go to war 

with England; it is indispensable. 



396. The impersonal expression, it is true, is an exception to this 
last rule. When relating- to something- said before, it can as well be 
expressed by il est vrai as by c'est vrai; as in, 



You are very witty, it is true; but 

there are a great many imperfections 

in your works. 
I am young, it is true ; but in a noble 

soul, courage does not wait for 

vears. 



Vous avez beaucoup d'esprit, c'est vrai; 

mais que d'erreurs dans vos ou- 

vrages. 
Je suis jeune, il est vrai; mais aux ames 

bien nees, la valeur n'attend pas le 

nombre des annees. 



We cannot too much insist on foreigners paying the greatest atten 
tion to the rules mentioned in this chapter, as well as those given in 
paragraph 387 ; not that those rules are difficult to understand, but 
their application is troublesome, inasmuch as the genius of the two 
languages differs on this point. 

OF FRENCH IDIOMATICAL EXPRESSIONS IN WHICH CE IS ELEGANTLY USED WITH 
THE VERB TO BE, ALTHOUGH IT HAS NO EQUIVALENT IN ENGLISH. 

397. Ce joined to the verb to be, forms a number of idiomatical 
expressions, called Gallicisms, which are elegantly used in French ; 
as, 

The way to encourage merit is to C'est encourager le merite que de le 

reward it. recompenser. 

To despise the true spirit of science is C'est ne pas connaitre l'esprit de la 

not to know it. science que de la mepriser. 

Hatred is a dreadful passion. C'est une terrible passion que la haine. 

One loves very coldly who is not jeai- C'est aimer froidement que n'etre point 

ous. jaloux. 

Merit is often a heavy burden. C'est un pesant fardeau d'avoir du 

merite. 



We see by these examples, that, in sentences of this kind, the 
second proposition is either preceded by que, que de, or de; but the two 
last are preferable, unless no verb should be used after que; as in, 

C'est une terrible passion que la haine, 

»n which case, que de, or de alone, could not be used. 



PRONOUN. 193 



OF THE COMPOUND ENGLISH PRONOUN WHAT, USED FOR THAT WHICH, WHEN 
USED AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE, THE SECOND PROPOSITION 0£ 
WHICH BEGINS WITH THE VERB TO BE. 

398. Whenever a sentence begins in French by the pronour 
ce, followed by a relative pronoun, both being most generally 
expressed in English by the compound pronoun what, if the second 
proposition begins with the verb to be, the demonstrative pronoun ce 
should be repeated or omitted before that verb, according to the fol- 
lowing rules : 

399. (1.) When the verb to be is followed by an adjective, the pro- 
noun ce is not repeated before that verb ; as in, 

What you have just told me is horrible. Ce que vous venez de me dire est horrible. 

400. (2.) When the verb to be is followed by a verb, or a personal 
pronoun, the pronoun ce is invariably repeated before that verb ; as 
in, 

What I wish the most is to go and see Ce queje desire le plus, c'est Waller vous 

you. voir. 

What attaches me to life is yourself. Ce qui m'attache a la vie c'est vous. 

401. (3.) When the verb to be is followed by a noun in the singu- 
lar, the pronoun ce may be repeated or omitted ; it is a matter of 
taste ; as in, 

What deserves our admiration the Ce qui merite le plus notre admiration 
most is virtue. est (or c'est) la vertu. 

402. (4.) But when the noun which follows the verb to be is used 
in the plural, the pronoun ce is invariably repeated before that verb ; 
which, being then used in that number, cannot have for its nominative 
the pronoun ce qui, placed at the commencement of the sentence, that 
compound expression always requiring the verb of which it is the nom- 
inative to be used in the sigular ; as in. 

What amused me most at the menag- Ce qui m'a le plus amuse a la menage- 
erie was the frolics of the monkeys rie ce sont les gambades des singes. 

OF THE PRONOUN CE, USED W'lTH THE VERB TO BE AT THE COMMENCEMENT 
OF THE SECOND PROPOSITION OF A SENTENCE WHICH DOES NOT BEGIN 
WITH CE. 

403. Whenever the second proposition of a sentence begins with the 
verb to be, the pronoun ce is prefixed to that verb, or omitted before 
it, according to the following rules : 

17 



194 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

404. (1.) If the verb to be is placed between two nouns, the pro- 
noun ce may be used or dispensed with before that verb, according 
to taste ; as in, 

The law of the universe is, woe to the La loi de 1'univers est, (or c'est,) mal- 
vanquished. hew au vaincu. 

405. (2.) When the verb to be is preceded by a noun and followed 
by a verb, the same rule should be observed ; as in, 

The greatest desire of most French- La fureur de la plupart des Francais 
men is to be witty. est (or c'est) d'avoir de l'esprit. 

406. (3.) The rule is the same when the verb to be is preceded by 
one or several verbs in the infinitive mood, and followed by a noun ; 
as in, 

To tell the truth to kings, is the duty of Dire la verite aux rois, est (or c'est) le 
those who surround them. devoir de ceux qui les entourent. 

407. (4.) But whenever the verb to be is preceded and followed by 
a verb in the infinitive, the pronoun ce should be placed before it ; as 
in, 

To commit an act of injustice, is to be Faire une injustice, c'est etre impie. 
impious. 



OF THE PRONOUN CE, USED AS THE ANTECEDENT OF A RELATIVE PRONOUN PRE- 
CEDED OR NOT BY A PREPOSITION, AND EXPRESSED BY WHAT. 

408. Ce, followed by a relative pronoun, relates only to things ; it 
is always masculine, and governs the verb of which it is the nomina- 
tive in the singular, because its meaning is too vague, and not suffi- 
ciently specified to ascertain its number and gender ; as in, 

What pleases is more dangerous than Ce qui plait est plus dangereux que ce 
that which offends. qui offense. 

The relative pronouns to which ce may be prefixed, are que, qui, 
dont, and quoi. 

With que, qui, and dont, no preposition can be used after ce; but 
quoi cannot follow ce without being preceded by a preposition. 

When joined to qui, ce qui is always employed as the nominative 
of the next verb. 

When joined to que, dont and quoi, the compound expres- 
sions ce que, ce dont, and ce h quoi, (whatever may be the preposi- 



PRONOUN. 195 

tion used before quoi,) are always the objects of* the verb following ; 
as in, 

What makes me happy, makes you Ce qui me rend heureux, vous rend mis- 
miserable, erable. 

What I love, you dislike. Ce que j'aime, vous le detestez. 

What you are "speaking of, is known by Ce dont vous parlez, est connu de tout 

everybody. le monde. 

What you are deficient in, is judgment. Ce par quoi vous pechez, c'est le 

manque de jugement. 

In the first example, ce qui is nominative to the verb rend, in 
the last three, ce que, ce dont, ce par quoi, are the objects of the verbs 
yaime, vous -parlez, and vous pechez. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PRONOUN CE, AFTER THE VERB TO BE, OR ANY OTHER, 
VERB REQUIRING THAT PRONOUN AS ITS DIRECT OBJECT, BEFORE THE PRO- 
NOUN QUOI, WHAT, PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 

409. Whenever the pronoun what, governed by a preposition, is 
used after the verb to he, the pronoun ce, which enters into the forma- 
tion of the compound expressions of what, with what, &c, may be 
suppressed, according to taste; as in, 

That is what (that of which) I wished C'est de quoi, or ce dont, (dont meaning 

to speak to you of. de quoi,) je voulais vous parler. 

Tell me what (that in which) I can Dites-moi en quoi, or ce en quoi,je puis 

assist you in. vous servir. 

This is what (that to which) I alluded Voici (see here) a quoi, or ce a quoi, je 

to. faisais allusion. 

It is evident that in these sentences the verbs this is, tell me, and 
see here, require a direct object after them, in order to complete their 
meaning ; that direct object which is understood, is indefinite in its 
meaning, and signifies this thing or the thing, rendered in French 
by the pronoun ce; and it is only for the sake of elegance that this 
pronoun may be omitted ; grammatically, it ought to be expressed. 



OF THE ENGLISH PRONOUN WHICH, USED IN ANSWERING A PREVIOUS QUES- 
TION. 

410. Whenever, in answer to a previous question, which is used in 
reference to a noun employed to signify a whole, it is expressed by 
celui que, celle que, &c; but whenever it refers to a noun used par- 
ticularly or indefinitely, it is expressed by ce que, (that thing which ;) 



Which of these two gowns shall I send La quelle de ces deux robes vous en- 
yon J . Which you pleaee. verrai-je 1 Celle que vous voudrei. 



196 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Celle que meaning that dress of the two which, etc. ; that having 
there a definite meaning-. 

Do you choose meat or fish 1 Which Voulez-vous de la viande ou du pois- 
you please. son 1 De ce que vous voudrez. 

De ce que meaning a part of that of the two things which you please ; 
that having an indefinite meaning. 

OF THE ENGLISH PRONOUN WHICH, USED AFTER A COMMA, IN THE SECOND 
PROPOSITION OF A SENTENCE. 

411. Whenever which is used after a comma, in the second part of 
a sentence which is not interrogative, and relates to the whole of the 
first part, or to a portion of it, it is expressed by ce qui, if nominative 
to the next verb, and by ce que, if objective ; as in, 

She gets up very late, which is very Elle se leve bien tard, ce qui est tres 

bad for her health. mauvais pour sa sante. 

She goes out in the evening, which I Elle sort le soir, ce que je n'aime pas 

do not like much. beaucoup. 

It is evident, that, in the first sentence, which does not relate to the 
word late, but to the whole proposition, she gets up very late, and sig- 
nifies that which ; and in the second, which does not relate to the word 
evening, but to the fact of going out in the evening, and it is that 
which I do not like much, and signifies, also, that which, which being 
objective, is expressed by ce que. 

OF THE PRONOUN WHICH, USED AS NOMINATIVE AT THE HEAD OF AN INCI- 
DENTAL PROPOSITION, AND RELATING TO SEVERAL ANTECEDENTS, REQ.UIR- 
ING THE VERB FOLLOWING TO EE USED IN THE PLURAL. 

412. Which meaning ce qui and ce que, and these two compound 
pronouns being always of the singular number, whenever that pro- 
noun, or any other expression requiring to be rendered by ce qui or ce 
que, comes before a verb which should be used in the plural, on 
account of which relating to several antecedents, the sentence must be 
constructed differently ; as, 

She plays on the piano, and draws very well, which are two very fine accom- 
plishments in a lady, 

should be constructed thus : 

She plays on the piano, and draws very well, accomplishments which are consid- 
ered very fine in a lady. 

Elle joue du piano, et dessine tres bien, talents qui sont consideres comme tr^s 
agreables dans une femme. 



PRONOUN. 197 

In this sentence, the plural noun talents sums up the two antece- 
dents of the pronoun which, and that noun becoming the antecedent 
of the relative pronoun qui, admits of the next verb being used in the 
plural. 



QUESTIONS. 



368. What is the definition of a demonstrative pronoun 1 

368. Into how many classes are demonstrative pronouns divided 1 (Ask the 
pupil what is the distinctive character of each class.) 

369. How are the demonstrative pronouns which are always placed before 
a noun expressed in French 1 

370. How are the pronouns this and that expressed in French, when they are 
placed before a single 



noun 



370. Are there not two ways for expressing those pronouns in the preceding 
cases, and which should be preferred 1 

371. What are the demonstrative pronouns which are always preceded by a 
noun 1 To what word do they correspond in English 1 

372. How are the demonstrative pronouns, which, relating to a definite noun, 
are always followed either by a preposition or a relative pronoun, expressed in 
French 1 

372. Are not the personal pronouns he, she, and they, expressed by the same 
words as the demonstrative, when they are followed by a relative pronoun 1 

373. Can the pronouns celui, celle, &c, be separated by a great number of 
words from their antecedent 1 

374. Can the pronouns celui, celle, &c, be, in French, as they are in English, 
separated from the relative pronoun of which they are the antecedents 1 

375. Should not the pronouns celui, celle, &c, when used in a particular 
6ense, always relate to a definite noun already expressed, understood, or men- 
tioned afterwards "? 

376. When these pronouns are used at the beginning of a sentence, in a gen- 
eral sense, and meaning the person, or the persons, can they be used in French'? 
or should not a noun be employed in their stead 1 

377. Can the pronouns of this class be used in French, in relation to nouna 
which are not preceded by the or the adjective a? 

378. Can the pronouns of this class be modified by an adjective or a past 
participle, without being followed by the expressions which is, or which are 7 

379. Cannot the pronouns celui, celle, &c, be elegantly suppressed before a 
relative pronoun 1 

380. When such is used at the beginning of a sentence, instead of he, she, and 
they, how is it expressed in French ! 

381. How are the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those, ex- 
pressed, when, not being followed either by a noun, a preposition, or a relative 
pronoun, they signify this ere one, that there one, &c.l 

381. Should these pronouns relate to definite or indefinite nouns *? and which 
should be applied to the nearest and which to the most distant object 1 

382. When the pronouns of this class are used in relation to a noun only, can 
celui-ci be indifferently used, as well as celui-ld, in relation to that noun *? 

383. Cannot the pronouns of this class be used sometimes without relating to 
any noun already expressed, and in what case 1 

38 1, 385. Cannot these pronouns be sometimes followed by a relative pro- 
noun, when used as nominatives 1 How is it when used objectively 1 

386. How are the pronouns this and that expressed, when relating to an idea 
or to a thing taken indefinitely 1 
17* 



198 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



386. Can these two pronouns be used, in French, before a present participle 9 
as they are in English 1 How should the sentence be turned 1 

387. How are the pronouns this, that, these and those, he, she, it and they, 
expressed, when, being used as nominatives to the verb to be, this verb is either 
followed by a noun preceded by the or a, a personal pronoun, or a verb 1 in what 
cases is the verb to be used in the plural 1 

388. Is the example of some writers, who have used the verb to be in the sin- 
gular, although it is followed by a plural noun or a personal pronoun of the third 
person plural, worthy of imitation 1 And is it proper to use the personal nomina- 
tive pronoun with the verb to be, when this verb is followed by a noun preceded 
by the or a ? 

3S9. Can the pronoun ce be used as a nominative to the verb to be, in all the 
tenses of this verb, in sentences which are not interrogatives 1 

3S9. What are the tenses and persons in which ce may be used as a nomina- 
tive to the verb to be, in interrogative sentences % 

390. In what number should the verb to be be used, when, having the pro- 
noun ce for its nominative, it is followed by several nouns in the singular 1 

391. In what number should the verb to be be used, when, having the pronoun 
ce for its nominative, it is followed by several nouns of a different number 1 and 
in what order should these nouns be placed 1 

392. What should be the number of the verb to be, when, being followed by 
a plural noun or by a plural pronoun of the third person, it is separated from 
them by a preposition 1 

393. Is the expression si ce n'est, meaning except, ever used in the plural 1 

394. When the verb to be, having for its nominative any of the personal pro- 
nouns he, she, it, and they, is followed either by an adjective, a noun used as an 
adjective, or an adverb of qualification, how are those persons expressed in 
French 1 — by ce, or by the personal pronouns il, elle, Us or elles? 

395. When the verb to be being followed by an adjective, the nominative 
pronoun it refers to something mentioned before, is it expressed by il, or by ce, 
and why 1 

396. Is there not an adjective, which, being used with the verb to be, admits 
of this verb being preceded either by il or ce? 

397. When the verb to be, preceded by the pronoun ce, is used at the begin- 
ning of a certain class of idiomatical expressions, how should the second propo- 
sition begin, by de, que, or que de? 

398. How is the pronoun what expressed in French, when used at the begin- 
ning of a sentence which is not interrogative'? 

399. If the verb to be, placed at the beginning of the second proposition of 
a sentence which commences by ce, is followed by an adjective, is the pronoun 
ce repeated before that verb 1 

400. If the verb to be, in a case similar to the preceding, is followed either 
by a verb or a personal pronoun, is the pronoun ce repeated before that verb % 

401. What should be done when the verb to be is followed by a noun in the 
singular 1 

402. Is there any difference, when the verb to be is followed by a plural 
noun 1 

403. 404, 405, 406, 407. When the verb to be is used at the head of the 
second proposition of a sentence, when should the pronoun ce be used before 
that verb 1 

408. When ce is followed by a relative pronoun, to what does it refer 1 Of 
what gender is it, and in what number does it govern the verb following 1 
408. What are the relative pronouns to which ce can be prefixed 1 
408. Which of those relative pronouns can be separated from ce by a prepo- 
sition 1 

408. Which of these compound expressions are used as nominative, and 
which as objective 1 

409. Cannot the pronoun ce be dispensed with sometimes before a relative 
oronoun, and in which case 1 



PRONOUN. ' 199 

409. Where is the necessity that the pronoun ce should be expressed or 
understood, in cases similar to the preceding % 

410. When which is used at the head of a sentence expressing an answer to 
a previous question, and refers to a noun employed to express a whole, how is it 
expressed in French 1 How is it when the noun which that pronoun refers to 
is indefinite or used in a partitive sense 1 

411. When which is used after a comma in a sentence which is not interrog- 
ative, and refers to the whole meaning of the first proposition, how is it ex- 
pressed in French, when nominative or objective 1 

412. Can the pronoun which be used at the head of an incidental proposition, 
when relating to several antecedents, which require the verb following to be used 
in the plural ? And if that pronoun cannot be used, how should the sentence be 
turned in French ? 



OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



413. We have seen already that the use of the personal pronouns 
is to designate persons and things ; that of relative pronouns is to 
recall the mind to them, and to explain or restrict their meaning. 

Therefore, relative pronouns relate necessarily to objects which 
have been spoken of before, and have been designated by a noun or 
pronoun. \ 

This noun or pronoun is called antecedent. This antecedent is not 
always expressed ; in many sentences it is understood, but the mind 
supplies it with facility, and places it immediately before the relative 
pronoun which belongs to it. 

Relative pronouns also operate as conjunctions in connecting two 
phrases together, when we say : 

The society in which we live is La societe que nous frequentons est 
pleasant, agreable, 

the relative que unites and makes only one sentence of these two : 

La societe est agreable, nous frequentons cette societe. 

This pronoun affords, also, the advantage of determining, with the 
period which follows it, the extent of the signification which we 
intend to give to the first ; thus, in this instance, we do not pretend to 
say that society in general is pleasant, but only the particular society 
in which we live. And this idea is expressed by the insertion of que 
before this restrictive period. 

The relative pronouns are six in number : 

Who, or that, qui. 

Whom, that, or which, que. 

Who, that, whom, or which, le quel. 



200 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Whose, dont, de qui, du quel, &c 

What, quoi. 

Where, in which, ou. 

Relative pronouns should not be mistaken for absolute pronouns, of 
which we shall speak hereafter. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHO. 

414. The relative pronoun who is always expressed in French by 
qui, which is of the same number, gender, and person, as its antece- 
dent; as in, 

The lady who sings is ray sister. La dame qui chante est ma sceur. 

The gentlemen who came this morning Les messieurs qui sont venus ce matin 
are merchants. sont des marchands. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT. 

415. The relative pronoun that is used in speaking of persons and 
things ; it is always of the same number, gender, and person, as its 
antecedent ; it is sometimes used as a nominative to the next verb, 
and sometimes, also, as its object. 

When nominative, it is expressed by qui; when objective, by que; 



The bird that sings on that tree is very Uoiseau qui chante sur cet arbre est 

pretty. trds joli. 

The children that 1 have punished this Les enfants que. j'ai punis ce matin sont 

morning are very disobedient. tres desobeissants. 

416. But when that is used in the sense of which, and relates to 
one of the words something, anything, or nothing, it is expressed by 
quoi, placing before it the preposition which governs the pronoun that 
in English ; as in, 

J do not know anything that your Je ne sache rien d quoi votre frere soit 
brother is fit for. propre. 

The adjective propre governing the preposition &, instead of the 
preposition for, which it governs in English. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHICH. 

417. The relative pronoun which is only used in place of things ; it 
is always of the same number, gender, and person, as its antecedent; it 
may be used as the nominative or the object of the next verb. When 



PRONOUN. 201 

nominative, it is expressed by qui or le quel; when objective, by que; 
as in, 

The apples which you have brought, Les pommes que vous avez apportees y 

are all rotten. sont toutes pourries. 

What is the bird which sings now 1 Quel est l'oiseau qui chante mainten- 

antl 

418. Le quel is only used to avoid an ambiguity, when the relative 
pronoun which being separated from its antecedent by a certain num- 
ber of words, it does not appear clearly what noun is the antecedent 
of the pronoun. 

419. Which sometimes performs the part of a demonstrative pro- 
noun ; as in, 

Which of these two books will you give me 1 Take which you please. 

It is then expressed as such, and, according to the rules we have 
given when speaking of that class of pronouns ; the preceding sen- 
tence should then be rendered by : 

Le quel de ces livres voulez-vous me donner 1 Prenez celui que vous voudrez. 



OF THE COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS OF WHICH, TO WHICH, AT WHICH, 
FROM WHICH, THROUGH WHICH. BY WHICH, WITH WHICH, ETC. 

420. Whenever of which is placed after a noun which is not gov- 
erned by a preposition, it is expressed in French by dont, and the 
construction should be altered so as to place after dont the nominative 
of the next verb ; as in, 

I have some foreign flowers, the smell J'ai des fleurs etrangeres, dont Vodeur 

of which is very sweet. est tres agreable. 

I have some foreign flowers, the smell J'ai des fleurs etrangeres, dont je n'aime 

of which I do not like. pas l'odeur. 

421. But when of which is placed after a noun preceded by a prep- 
osition, it keeps its place, in French, after that noun, with which it 
agrees in number and gender, and is expressed by du quel, de la quelle, 
des quels, des quelles, according to the number and gender of the noun 
to which it relates ; as in, 

I have some foreign flowers, to the J'ai des fleurs etrangeres, a l'odeur 

smell of which I shall never get ac- des quelles je ne m'accoutumerai ja- 

customed. mais. 

The daughter of Minos gave a thread La fille de Minos donna un fil a The- 

to Theseus, by means of which he see, par le moyen du quel il sortit du 

went out of the labyrinth. labyrinthe. 



202 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



422. The pronoun which, when preceded by the preposition to, 
or any other except those mentioned in paragraph 423, is ex- 
pressed, in French, by le quel, la quelle, les quels, les quelles, 
according to the number and gender of the noun to which it relates ; 
as in, 



Idleness is a vice to which young peo- 
ple are very much inclined. 

The studies (to) which he applies him- 
self to are very difficult. 

This is the tool with which I have 
made this pretty flower. 

Is this the piano on Avhich you played 
last night % 

Whose house is that near which we 
passed this morning % 

Here is a book, without which I can- 
not work. 



La paresse un vice au quel je ne m'ac- 

coutumerai jamais. 
Les etudes aux quelles il s 'applique ne 

sont pas tres difficiles. 
Voici Poutil avec le quel j'ai fait cette 

jolie fleur. 
Est-ce la le piano sur le quel vous avez 

joue hier soir 1 
A qui est la maison pres de la quelle 

nous sommes passes ce matin 1 
Voici un livre, sans le quel je ne peux 

pas travailler. 



422. (Bis.) Which, used in cases similar to the preceding, is some- 
times also expressed by quoi ; as in, 



These are things to which you do not 

pay sufficient attention. 
These are conditions without which 

this affair would not have been 

agreed upon. 
That is the cause for which he has 

been arrested. 



Ce sont des choses a quoi vous ne faites 

pas assez attention. 
Ce sont des conditions sans quoi cette 

affaire n'aurait pas ete conclue. 

Voila le sujet pour quoi il a ete arrete. 



These sentences are consecrated by usage, but are not grammati- 
cal, because the pronoun quoi should never relate to nouns taken in a 
definite sense. 

423. Whenever the pronoun which is preceded by any of the prepo- 
sitions from, at, through, by, and in, and expresses an idea of extrac- 
tion, transmission, or rest, it is rendered in French by the pronoun 
ou, in the following manner: from which, d'ou; at which, ou; 
through or by which, par ou; in which, ou; as in, 



The country through which we passed, 
in going to D***, a village from 
which they extract a great quantity 
of coal, is the most fertile of those in 
which I have ever travelled. 

The end at which he aims, is to revive 
liberty in a country from which it 
seems to have been banished. 

Which way (by where) did you come 1 



Le pays par ou nous passames en allant 
a D***, village d'ou l'on extrait 
une grande quantite de charbon, est 
le plus fertile de tous ceux ow,j'ai 
jamais voyage. 

Le but ou il vise, c'est de faire re- 
vivre la liberte dans un pays d'ou 
elle semble avoir ete bannie. 

Par ou etes vous venu 1 



PRONOUN. 203 

424. From which is never expressed by dont, except in the follow- 
ing sentence : 

The family which he comes from, La maison dont il sort, 

which should not be mistaken for the following : 

La maison d'oii il sort; 

which means, 

The house which he comes from. 

The word maison having two significations, house, and family, 
which give those sentences an entirely different meaning, requiring a 
change in the pronoun, in order that they should be properly under- 
stood. 

The word oil is also an adverb, and then corresponds to the 
English word where, and when used with the preposition de and par, 
which are the only ones by which it may be governed, it becomes the 
equivalent of the expressions whence and which way. 

4-25. Whenever the pronoun which is preceded by a preposition, and 
signifies what thing, or what fact, in a sentence which is not interroga- 
tive, it is expressed by quoi ; as in. 

The tables were cleared away, after Les tables furent enlevees, apres quoi 
which the ball began. le bal commenca. 

426. But if the sound produced by the use of quoi, preceded by its 
preposition, should be disagreeable, they should be both omitted, and 
their place supplied by the conjunction and, et, followed by an adverb 
of time, such as, ensuitc, alors, aussitot, &c, afterwards, then, at 
once, &c. ; as, 

Les tables furent enlevees et ensuite, {alors, or aussitot,) le bal commenca. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOM. 

427. The relative pronoun whom is always used as the object of a 
verb ; it relates to persons only. 

"When employed without a preposition, it is expressed by que, 
which is of either number and gender, and should agree with the 
noun to which it relates ; as in, 

I? this the young lady whom you recom- Est-ce la la jeune personne, que voua 
mended to me 1 m'avez recommandie? 



204 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

These pretty children whom you love Ces jolis enfants que vous avez tant 
so much are all dead. crimes sont tous morts. 

When whom is preceded by a preposition, it is expressed in French 
according to the following rules. 



OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOM PRECEDED BY THE PREPOSITION OJf> t DE. 

428. Of whom maybe expressed, in French, in the following differ- 
ent manners : de qui, dont, and du quel, de la quelle, des quels, and des 
quelles. De qui and dont are preferable to du quel, &c, and dont is 
generally preferable to de qui ; we say generally, because some gram- 
marians pretend that when the antecedent of of whom is a noun, de 
qui should be used in its stead, and dont, when that antecedent is a 
pronoun ; as in, 

The lady of whom you are speaking is La dame de qui vous parlez est trds 

very well known. connue. 

You are the person we were speaking C'est vous dont nous parlions. 

of. 

But this distinction is a nicety which should not trouble foreigners. 
Dont is as properly used as de qui; and, idiomatically, it is preferable. 

429. Du quel, de la quelle, &c, are only employed when, the rela- 
tive pronoun being separated from its antecedent by a number of 
words, the sentence might be rendered ambiguous by using dont and 
de qui, which, being of either number and gender, do not clearly show 
at once which is the noun to which they relate ; as in, 

When I went to court, everybody Quand j'allai a la cour, tout le monde 

seemed to take the greatest interest semblait prendre le plus vif interet a 

in the fate of the sister of your friend, la sozur de votre ami, de la quelle je 

of whom I had never heard before. n'avais jamais entendu parler. 

De la quelle is used here instead of dont or de qui, because neither 
of these pronouns would indicate sufficiently whether they relate to 
samr or ami; but however necessary the use of this pronoun may 
be, for the sake of clearness, elegance proscribes it, and sentences 
should be constructed so as to avoid the necessity of using it. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOM, PRECEDED BY ANY OTHER PREPOSITION 
THAN OF, DE. 

430. Whenever whom is preceded by any other preposition than 
of, it is expressed by qui, or le guel, la quelle, &c. ; qui being prefer- 



PRONOUN. 205 

able to le quel whenever the sentence is so constructed as to leave no 
ambiguity in reference to the antecedent of that pronoun ; as in, 

Who was that lady to whom Mr. C*** Qui est cette dame a qui M. C*** vous 

introduced you the other day 1 presenta l'autre jour 1 

It is die mother of die minister to C'est la mere du ministre d la quelle 

whom I already had so many obliga- j'avais deja tant d'obligations, qui a 

tions, who has yet obtained diis obtenu cette place pour mon frere. 
office for my brother. 

A qui is used in the first sentence because its use cannot create any 
ambiguity ; but a la quelle is necessary in the other, because it qui would 
not show at once whether the pronoun refers to ministre or mere. 

Are you engaged to the young lady with Etes-vous fiance a la jeune personne 

whom I saw you last summer % avec qui je vous vis 1'ete dernier 1 

Here is the gentleman I was running Voici le monsieur apres qui je courais. 
after. 

431. From whom is always expressed by de qui, or du quel, in case 
of an ambiguity, but never by dont; as in, 

The ladies from whom I received this Les dames de qui je recus cette infor- 
information are gone to Europe. mation sont parties pour l'Europe. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOSE. 

432. Whenever the pronoun whose is not preceded by a preposi- 
tion, it can always be expressed by dont, or de qui, or du quel, (this 
last expression being only used in case of an ambiguity,) and it 
should then be followed by the nominative of the next verb, whatever 
may be the construction of the sentence in English ; as in, 

The lady whose talent and virtue you La dame dont vous admirez tant le 

admire so much is the mother of talent et la vertu, est la mere de 

these pretty children. ces jolis enfants. 

The man whose genius is grand and L'homme dont le genie est grand et 

sublime, like nature, is the admira- sublime, comme la nature, est l'ad- 

tion of the world. miration du monde. 

433. But when whose is preceded by a preposition, or if the preposi- 
tion, not being expressed in English, is governed by the French verb, 
the construction of the sentence should be altered, and that pronoun 
be expressed by de qui or du quel alone, placed after the noun which 
it precedes in English ; as in, 

Napoleon, whose greatness of soul is so Napoleon, dont la grandeur d'ame est 

much admired, and to whose valor tant admiree et a la valeur de qui, or 

(to the valor of whom) the French du quel, les Francais doivent tant de 

owe so many victories, died at forty- victoires, mourut a l'age de quarante- 

five years of age. cinq ans. 

18 



206 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

She is a woman to whose caprices I C'est unefemme aux caprices de qui, or 
shall never submit. de la quelle, je ne me soumettrai ja- 

mais. 



REMARKS ON THE PROPER USE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS IN 
FRENCH. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, NOT PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 

434. The relative pronoun qui, used without a preposition, relates 
to persons and things ; it is of either number and gender, and is 
invariably repeated before each verb of which it is the nominative ; 
as in, 

She is a young lady who sings well, C'est une jeune personne qui chante 
plays on several instruments, and is bien, qui joue de plusieurs instru- 
admired by everybody. ments, et qui est admiree de tout le 

monde. 

435. Qui is always of the same person, number and gender, as its 
antecedent ; that is to say, it governs the verb and adjectives which 
follow it in the same number, gender, and person, as that antecedent, 
but, as to itself, it remains unchanged ; as in, 

It is I who have insulted you. C'est moi qui vous ai insulte. 

You, who pretend to love me, why do Vous, qui pretendez m'aimer, pourquoi 
you not revenge me 1 ne me vengez-vous pas 1 

436. Qui should not be separated from its antecedent, when that 
antecedent is a noun, unless the meaning of the sentence should show 
clearly the relation existing between them ; as in, 

It has been necessary, above all, to II a fallu, avant toutes choses, vous 

make you read, in the holy Scrip- faire lire dans l'ecriture sainte, 

tures, the history of the people of Vhistoire du peuple de Dieu, qui fait 

God, which is the foundation of re* le fondement de la religion, 
ligion. 

In this sentence, qui is separated from its antecedent by the words 
du peuple de Dieu, but the sense compels that pronoun to relate to 
the noun histoire; there is no ambiguity, and the construction is 
correct. 

437. The pronoun qui may be separated from its antecedent when 
that antecedent is a personal objective pronoun used as the direct 
object of a verb ; as in, 

I found her weeping bitterly. Je la trouvai qui pleurait a chaudes 

larmes. 



PRONOUN. 207 

The reason for this rule is, that the pronouns le, la, and les, used 
as the objects of a verb, cannot possibly, on account of the rules 
we have already given, be placed after the verb, and as no ambi- 
guity arises in sentences of this kind, there is no objection to the 
pronouns being separated. 

438. When speaking of personal and demonstrative pronouns used 
as nominatives, we have already stated that these pronouns could not 
generally be separated from the relative pronoun of which they are 
the antecedents, and we have given the exceptions. (See these two 
parts of speech.) 

439. Although the pronoun qui, used as a nominative, ought not to 
be separated from its antecedent, the construction of the sentence 
sometimes requires that it should not precede immediately the verb 
of which it is the nominative, on account of some incidental proposi- 
tions being placed between them ; these constructions are regular, 
provided they do not alter the clearness of the sentence ; as in, 

Are you, then, the man who, when I met Etes vous, done, Vhomme qui, lorsque je 

him ten years ago, was begging for le rencontrai, il y a dix ans, mendiait 

his bread, and now possesses so son pain, et qui maintenant possede 

great riches 1 de si grandes richesses ^ 

In this sentence, the relative pronoun qui is separated from the 
verb of which it is the nominative by the incidental propositions, 
lorsque je le rencontrai and il y a dix ans ; but the sense is clear, and 
consequently the construction regular. 

440. But although the pronoun qui can be separated from its ante- 
cedent by an incidental proposition, this cannot be done when this 
incidental proposition is composed of a preposition followed by its 
object ; as in, 

The goddess, who, on entering the La deesse, en entrant, qui voit la table 

room, sees the table dressed, admires mise, admire un si bel ordre, et recon- 

its fine arrangement, and recognizes nait 1'eglise. 

the hand of the church. 

Hearing this, with an arm that knows D'un bras, d ces mots, qui peut tout 

no resistance, he destroys everything renverser, il detruit tout ce qui l'en- 

around him. toure. 

These sentences are badly constructed ; they should stand as fol- 
lows : 

La deesse qui, en entrant, &c. 

A ces mots, d'un bras qui peut, &c. 



208 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

441. The pronoun qui should not be employed when it relates to a 
noun followed by an object ; as in, 

Do not take my brother's horse which Ne prenez pas le cheval de mon frere 

is lame. qui est boiteux. 

Let us go and see the sister of my Allons voir la soeur de mon ami qui est 

friend who is always sick. toujours malade. 

Those sentences are incorrect, because they are not clear ; in the 
first, we do not see clearly whether it is the horse or my brother that 
is lame ; in the second, we cannot discover whether it is the sister or 
the friend who is sick. They ought to be constructed as follows : 

Ne prenez pas le cheval boiteux de mon frere. 
Allons voir la soeur malade de votre ami. 

442. Qui is sometimes used without its antecedent being expressed, 
which is generally the case when that antecedent is a pronoun ; the 
pronouns which are understood are as we have already explained 
it, when speaking of the demonstrative pronouns ce, celui, celle, ceux, 
or celles; as in, 

He who stands as surety, ought to pay. {Celui.) Qui repond, paie. 

Those who could work, did so. {Celui.) Travaillait qui pouvait. 

Let us play the game in which the loser Jouons a {celui) qui perd gagne. 
is the winner. 

The first sentence stands for, Celui qui repond paie; the second, 
for Ceux qui le pouvaient travaillaient ; and the last, instead of Jouons 
au jeu oil celui qui perd gagne. 

These sentences, and others similar to them, are idiomatical, and 
one must be very well acquainted with the language before he omits a 
pronoun as the antecedent of qui. 

443. The pronoun qui, when its antecedent is a noun, ought 
always to relate to a noun taken in a definite or particular sense, that 
is to say, preceded by the or a expressed or understood ; as in, 

He received me with a politeness II m'a recu avec une politesse qui m'a 

which charmed me. charme. 

He received me with his habitual kind- II me recut avec la bonte qui lui est or- 

ness. dinaire. 

These sentences would be incorrect if the or a were omitted. But 
the following : 

He has not a book which is not his II n'a pas de livre qui ne soit de son 
own choice. choix. 



PRONOUN. 209 

He behaves as a man who knows the II se conduit en hommc qui connait le 

world, monde, 

He is overwhelmed with troubles which II est accable de maux qui ne lui lais- 

do not leave him a moment of rest, sent pas un moment de repos, 

This is a sort of fruit that does not C'est une sorte de fruit qui ne murit 

ripen in Europe, pas en Europe, 

There is no man who can say, I shall II n'y a pas d'homme qui puisse dire, 

live until to-morrow, je vivrai jusqu'a demain, 

are also correct, though the nouns which serve as the antecedents of 
qui are neither preceded by the nor a, in French ; because they are 
elliptical, and if we supply the words which the ellipsis gives us the 
privilege to omit, we shall see that the vague meaning of the nouns 
livre, homme, maux, and, fruit, would change and become deter- 
mined ; for they are used instead of, 

II n'a pas un livre qui, &c. 

II se conduit comme un homme qui, &c. 

II est accable par des maux qui, &c. 

Ce fruit est d'une sorte qui, &c. 

II n'y a pas un homme qui, &c. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 

444. The relative pronoun qui, preceded by a preposition, is only 
used when speaking of persons or things personified ; it is of either 
gender and number, and agrees with its antecedent ; as in, 

The man who owns this beautiful gar- Uhomme d qui appartient ce beau jar- 
den is very rich. din est tres riche. 

Providence, without whose assistance La Providence, sans l'assistance de qui 

we cannot succeed, is always just nous ne pouvons reussir, est toujours 

and merciful. juste et miser icordieuse. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUE. 

445. The relative pronoun que relates to persons and things ; it is 
of either number and gender ; it is never used as a nominative or pre- 
ceded by a preposition, and is always of the same number and gender 
as its antecedent, which, generally, it immediately follows ; as in, 

The ladies whom we have known in Les dames que nous avons connues en 
France have just arrived in Boston. France viennent d'arriver a Boston. 

446. Que may be separated from its antecedent by a certain number 
of words, provided the mind may, without trouble or ambiguity, recur 
to that antecedent, of which those words are but the complement ; 



What is an army 1 It is a body acted Q,u'est-ce qu'une armee 1 C'est un 

upon by a number of different pas- corps anime d'une infinite de passions 

sions which a skilful man incites to differentes qu'un homme habile fait 

the defence of the country. mouvoir pour la defense de la patrie. 

18* 



210 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It is impossible, in this sentence, to mistake the antecedent of the 
pronoun que, because the mind has no trouble in recurring to the noun 
corps, although it is separated from that pronoun by the incidental 
qualificative proposition, animi oVune infinite de passions differentes. 

All sentences constructed like the preceding, in which the mind 
could not recur at once to the antecedent of the relative pronoun que, 
are defective, and ought to be avoided. 

447. The relative pronoun que should never be mistaken for the 
conjunction que; they are easily distinguished, because, when it is a 
relative pronoun, it may be expressed by which or whom, in English, 
which is never the case when it is a conjunction ; for then it is always 
the equivalent of the same part of speech, that, in English. 

448. Que should always be used in sentences like the following : 

It is not to you I speak, Ce n'est pas d vous que je parle, 

It is of you I speak, C'est de vous que je parte ; 

for if, instead of que, we use the pronoun qui, this pronoun would 
require to be preceded by the preposition to, &, in the first sentence, 
and of, de, in the other, which then would stand thus : 

C'est a vous a qui je parle, c'est de vous de qui, or dont je parle. 

In which case, the verb parler would have two objects, vous and que, 
governed by the same preposition, which is against the genius of the 
language. 

449. Que, although most generally used with an antecedent, is 
sometimes employed in French instead of what meaning what thing, 
in sentences like the following : 

I do not know what to say. Je ne sais que dire. 

He did not know what to answer. II ne sut que repondre. 



OF THE PRONOUNS LE QUEL, LA QUELLE, LES QUELS, LES QUELLES. 

450. The relative pronoun le quel, &c, is used when speaking of 
persons and things. It takes either number and gender ; as, 

Le quel, singular masculine, Les quels, plural masculine, 

La quelle, singular feminine, Les quelles, plural feminine, 

and agrees with its antecedent. 

451. The pronoun le quel should only be used, with or without a 



PRONOUN. 211 

preposition, in order to avoid an ambiguity ; it never follows imme- 
diately the noun to which it relates ; as in, 

Here is an instance taken from the Voici un exemple tire des papiers 

English papers, which I cannot help Anglais, le quel je ne puis m'em- 

mentioning. pecher de rapporter. 

You know, madam, that there is a Vous savez, madarne, qu'il y a une 

counterfeited edition of my book, edition contrefaite de mon livre, la 

which is to be out in a few days. quelle doit paraitre dans peu de 

jours. 

452. But these sentences are inelegant, and it would be better to 
alter their construction so as not to be obliged to use the pronoun le 
quel; as, for instance, 

J'ai trouve dans les papiers Anglais, Vexemple suivant que je ne puis m'empecher 

de rapporter. 
Vous savez, madame, qu'il y a une edition contrefaite de mes ouvrage ; die 

doit paraitre dans peu de jours. 



OF THE PRONOUN DONT. 

453. The relative pronoun dont is used in speaking of persons and 
things ; it is of either gender and number ; it means of whom, whose, 
of which, and of what. We have already said that it should be pre- 
ferred to de qui and du quel, when the construction and clearness of 
the sentence admit of its being used. 

454. It can be employed instead of whose, when this pronoun is not 
preceded by a preposition , and should only be replaced by du quel, 
when, being placed at some distance from its antecedent, an ambi- 
guity should arise in reference to the noun to which it relates ; as in, 

The goodness of the Lord, the effects La bonti, de Dieu, de la quelle (and not 

of which we feel ever}' day of our dont) nous ressentons tous les jours 

lives, should induce us to obey his les effets, devrait bien nous engager 

commands. a suivre ses commandements. 

Dont would be a fault, because this pronoun, being of either gen- 
der, could as well have Dieu as bonte for its antecedent ; the sentence 
would then be ambiguous, which must always be avoided. 

455. It ought not to be forgotten, that dont should always be fol- 
lowed by the nominative of the next verb ; as in, 

The French ought never to forget the Les Francais ne doivent jamais oublier 

memory of IVapoleon, whose great la memoire de Napoleon, dont les 

deeds have covered their country hauls faits ont couvert le pays de 

with glory. gloire. 



212 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

456. When dont takes the place of what, it should always be pre- 
ceded by the demonstrative pronoun ce, as its antecedent ; as in, 

Do you ever think of glory 1 Yes, in- Pensez-vous quelquefois a la gloire 1 
deed; it is what I dream of every Oui, vraiment; c'est ce dont je reve 
night. toutes les nurts. 

457. Dont is sometimes used instead of with which, by means of 
which, avec le quel, au moyen du quel; as in, 

Do you know the ingredients with Connaissez-vous les ingredients dont la 
which cotton powder is made 1 poudre de coton est composee 1 



OF THE PRONOUN QUOI. 

458. The relative pronoun quoi is used instead of which and what, 
when the antecedent of these pronouns has a vague and indefinite 
meaning, or when they relate to a whole sentence already expressed. 
It is also employed in relation to things; but idiomatically, and instead 
of the pronoun le quel, which now would be preferred by good writers ; 
it is always preceded by a preposition ; as in, 

The king walked a minuet, after which Le roi dansa un menuet, apres quoi 

the whole court retired. toute la cour se retira. 

Are these the materials with which Sont-ce la les rnateriaux avec quoi vous 

you are to build this house 1 devez batir cette maison 1 

There is nothing which I would not II n'y a rien a quoi je ne me soumisse 

submit to, in order to please you. pour vous plaire. 

In the first sentence, quoi relates to the first clause, the king walked 
a minuet; in the second, it relates to a noun of things, materials, and is 
used for les quels; and, in the last, it relates to the indefinite pronoun 
nothing. 

459. Whenever the words something or anything, or any expres- 
sion conveying the same idea of vagueness, are used to denote the 
means or instrument necessary to perform an action, they are ex- 
pressed by the pronoun quoi, preceded by the preposition of, de; as in, 

Give me something to write with. Donnez-moi de quoi ecrire. 

I have something to play with. J'ai de quoi m'amuser. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN OU. 

460. The relative pronoun ou is of either number and gender, and 
relates only to things. It is used alone, and also with the preposi- 
tions de, of, and par, by. 



PR NOUN. 213 

Oil is used instead of in which and to which ; tfou, instead of from 
which; and par oil, instead of by which or through which; as in, 

This is the house in which I live. Voici la maison ou je demeure. 

Is this the hotel which you wish to go Est-ce Id Vhotel ou vous -voulez aller % 

to'? 

This is a mine from which they extract Voici une mine d'ow l'on tire de tres 

beautiful diamonds. beaux diamants. 

Is the country through which we have Le pays par ou nous devons passer 

to pass to-morrow beautiful 1 demain, est-il beau 1 

Is this the pass we must follow 1 (by Est-ce la le sentier par ou nous devons 

which we must pass.) passer % 

461. It is seen by these examples that ou is used instead of which, 
le quel, whenever the sentence expresses an idea of rest as in the 
first, an idea of motion as in the second, fourth, and fifth, or an idea 
of extraction as in the third. 

462. In a sentence like the following : 

Was it to this office you applied last year 1 

the pronoun oil could not be employed after the noun office, if the prep- 
osition to should be used before that noun, because ou, meaning to 
which, would imply the repetition of the same preposition as governed 
by one verb, which is, as we already mentioned it, against the rule of 
language ; thus we cannot say : 

Est-ce a ce bureau ou vous vous adressates l'annee derni^re 1 

The conjunction that, que, ought to be used instead of the pronoun ; 



Est-ce d ce bureau que vous vous adressates l'annee derni^re 1 

But if the sentence should be constructed by omitting the preposition : 
as in, 

Was this the office to which you applied last year 1 

then the pronoun oil should be properly used instead of to which; as 

Est Ik le bureau ou vous vous adressates l'annee derniere 1 

The preposition to, implied in the meaning of oil, standing for au 
quel, being used only once with the verb s'adres&er. 

463. The adverb when is very often used in English, instead of the 
relative pronoun which, preceded by the prepositions in, during, at, 
or to. But in French, adverbs have no antecedents, and the English 



214 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

adverb should, in such cases, assume in our language its real charac- 
ter, which is that of a relative pronoun. It is then expressed by oit; 



Do you remember the time when we Vous rappelez vous le temps ou (during 

were together in college 1 which) nous etions ensemble au col- 

^legel 

Have you recovered from the blow you Etes-vous retabli du coup que vous 

received the day when we arrived in recutes le jour ou (at which) nous 

Boston 1 arrivames a Boston % 

Were you present at the battle when Assistiez-vous a la bataille ou (in 

our general lost his life 1 which) notre general perdit la vie 1 

This rule is very important, and using quand for when is a fault 
which Americans and Englishmen are constantly making, in cases 
similar to the preceding. 

464. In a sentence like the following : 

Well ! what will you begin with 1 

it must be ascertained whether the meaning is : by what part, or by 
what thing, will you begin. In the first instance, the above sentence 
should be expressed by : 

Eh ! bien, par ou voulez-vous commencer 1 

and, in the other, by: 

Eh ! bien, par quoi voulez-vous commencer 1 

Par oil signifying by what part ? the beginning, the end, the middle 
one, or any other; and par quoi, by what thing, by this one, that one, 
or any other ? 

Remark. Whatever may be the relative pronoun required by the 
meaning or construction of a sentence, that pronoun is never omitted 
in French, as it is so often the case in English ; as in, 

Who is the man I see yonder 1 Qui est Phomme que je vois la bas 1 

The lady you love is not so very La femme que vous aimez n'est pas si 
pretty. " jolie. 



QUESTIONS. 



413. What is the definition of a relative pronoun 1 

413. What part of speech should be the antecedent of a relative pronoun 1 

413. Is the antecedent of a relative pronoun always expressed "? 



PRONOUN. 215 

413. What are the relative pronouns in French 1 

414. How is who expressed in French, and of what number and gender is it 1 

415. How is the relative pronoun that expressed in French 1 Is it always 
used as a nominative, or is it also used objectively 1 How is it expressed in 
either case 1 

416. When that is used in the sense of which, and relates to one of the words 
something or anything, how is it expressed 1 

417. Is the pronoun which used in relation to persons and things 1 and how 
is it expressed in either case, whether it be used as a nominative or as an 
object ? 

418. When is the pronoun le quel used instead of which 1 

419. Is not which sometimes used as a demonstrative pronoun 1 How is it 
expressed in such cases ? 

420. How is of which expressed when it comes after a noun which is not pre- 
ceded by a preposition ] What is the word which should always follow the pro- 
noun 

421. How is of which expressed when it comes after a noun which is pre- 
ceded by a preposition 1 

422. How is the relative pronoun which generally expressed, when it is pre- 
ceded by any other preposition than of, de? 

422. (Bis.) Is not the pronoun which, in cases similar to the preceding, 
sometimes expressed idiomatically by another pronoun than le quel ? 

423. How is which expressed, when, being preceded either by from, at, 
through, by, or in, it is used in a sentence implying an idea of rest, translation 
from one place to another, or extraction 1 

424. Is not from which sometimes expressed by dont? in what case 1 

424. Is not the pronoun oii. sometimes used as an adverb 1 and by what prep- 
osition can it be preceded 1 

425. When the pronoun which is preceded by a preposition, and signifies 
what thing, or what fact, in a sentence which is not interrogative, how is it ex 
pressed 1 

426. If the sound of the pronoun should be disagreeable to the ear, how should 
it be supplied 1 and how should the sentence be constructed 1 

427. How is the pronoun ivhom expressed, when used without a preposition 1 

428. How is of whom expressed 1 Which is generally preferable, de qui or 
dont? 

429. When should du quel, &c, be preferred to de qui and dont? 

430. How is whom expressed, when it is preceded by any other preposition 
than of ? When is le quel to be preferred to qui? 

431. How is from wlxom expressed, — by de qui or dont? 

432. How is the relative pronoun whose expressed, when it is not preceded 
by a preposition 1 

433. How is the same pronoun expressed, when it is preceded by a preposi- 
tion 1 

432, 433. What is the word which should always follow, in French, the pro- 
nouns dont, de qui, and du quel? 

434. Does the pronoun qui, used without a preposition, relate to persons, or 
things, or to both 1 Of what number and gender is it 1 and is it repeated before 
each verb which it governs 1 

435. With what words does the pronoun qui agree 1 and what does this 
agreement signify ? 

436. Can the pronoun qui be separated from its antecedent when that ante- 
cedent is a noun 1 

437. Can the pronoun qui be separated from its antecedent when that ante- 
cedent is an objective pronoun 1 If it can, why "! 

438. When the antecedent of qui is either a relative or a nominative personal 
pronoun, can it be separated from them in French as it is in English 1 

439. Cannot the pronoun qui be sometimes separated from its antecedent 
when that antecedent is a noun, and on what condition 1 



216 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

440. Can the pronoun qui be separated from its antecedent by a preposition 
followed by its object 1 

441. Can the pronoun qui be used at all when it relates to a noun followed 
by its object 1 What is to be done if it cannot be used 1 

442. Cannot the pronoun qui be used without an antecedent 1 and if it can, 
what is the nature of the antecedent that can be dispensed with 1 

443. What should be the nature of a noun, in order that it may serve as an 
antecedent to the pronoun qui? 

443. Is the article the, or the adjective a, always expressed before the nouns 
which serve as an antecedent to the pronoun qui? (The pupils should give 
examples in which the article and the adjective a are not expressed, and show 
how these examples apply to the preceding rules.) 

444. Does the pronoun qui, preceded by a preposition, relate to persons or 
things 1 Of what number and gender is the expression de qui, and with what 
does it agree 1 

445. Does the relative pronoun que relate to persons or things, or to both '? 
Is it ever preceded by a preposition 1 and is it used as a nominative or as an 
object to the verb following 1 What is the word which it generally follows 1 

446. On what condition can the pronoun que be separated from its antece- 
dent 1 

447. How can it be ascertained whether the word que is either a relative 
pronoun or a conjunction 1 

448. Why is que used, and not a qui, in a sentence like the following, C'est a 
vous que je parle, It is to you that I apeak ? 

449. Is not que sometimes used without an antecedent 1 To what word does 
it then correspond in English 1 

450. What number and gender can the pronoun le quel take 1 With what 
does it agree 1 

451. For what purpose only should the pronoun le quel be used 1 

452. Is not the use of the pronoun le quel inelegant, and is it not better to try 
to dispense with it 1 

453. Of what number and person is the pronoun dont? Is it used in speaking 
of persons or things, or of both 1 To what word does it correspond, in English 1 

454. When is it that dont can be used instead of whose? and when should it 
be replaced by du quel ? 

455. By what word should dont be invariably followed, in French 1 

456. When dont takes the place of what, by what word should it be pre- 
ceded 1 

457. Is not dont sometimes used instead of with which, by means of which? 

458. What are the English pronouns which can be expressed by quoi ? and 
what should be the nature of its antecedent 1 

458. Is it not also sometimes used in relation to things used definitely, and in 
virtue of what privilege 1 

459. When the words something or anything are used to denote the means or 
instrument necessary to do anything, how are they expressed in French 1 

460. Of what number and gender is the pronoun oil, and what is the nature 
of the nouns to which it relates 1 What are the prepositions by which it can be 
preceded 1 

460. To what English expression do ou, d'oii, and par ou, correspond 1 

461. What should be the meaning of the English sentence, for the above 
expression to be rendered by oil, d'ou, and par ou? 

461. Why cannot the pronoun ou be used in a sentence like the following : 
Est-ce a ce bureau que vous vous adressdtes Vannee dernier e ? Was it to tfiis offi.ce 
you applied last year ? 

463. Can the adverb when be translated as such in French, where it relates 
to a noun already expressed 1 If not, why 1 and how is it expressed t 

464. In a sentence like the following : What will you begin with, what should 
be the meaning of with what, for it to be expressed in French either by par quoi 
or par oil ? 



proxoun. 217 



OF ABSOLUTE OR INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN*.. 

465. Absolute pronouns are those which have no relation to an 
antecedent; they are generally used in interrogative or exclamative, 
but sometimes also in affirmative sentences ; they correspond to the 
English interrogative pronouns who, whom, whose, what, ivhi^h, 
where, and are expressed as follows : 

Who, qui, qui est-ce qui, or quel. 

Whom, qui, or qui est-ce que. 

Whose, a qui, a qui est-ce que. 

What, quel, que, or qu'est-ce que, and quoi. 

Which) le quel, qui. 

Where, ou. 

OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHO. 

466. The absolute pronoun who is expressed by qui, or qui est-ce 
qui, (who is it who,) when, being taken in an absolute meaning, it 
does not relate to a noun expressed after the verb ; and by quel, when 
the next verb is followed by a noun to which this pronoun que<. 
relates. 

The absolute pronoun qui is generally singular and masculine, on 
account of its vague and absolute meaning ; but quel agrees in num- 
ber and gender with the noun or pronoun with which it is connected 
in the sentence. 

467. We should mention here that qui is far preferable to qui est- 
ce qui, which is a real pleonasm and a Gallicism, and ought to be 
avoided. The following interrogative and affirmative sentences will 
illustrate these rules : 

Who gave you this beautiful dog 1 Qui vous a donne ce beau chien 1 

(absolute meaning.) 
Who are those people we see on the Quelles sont ces personnes que nous 

hill 1 (relative meaning.) voyons sur la colline 1 

Everybody knows who set fire to that Tout le monde sait qui a mis le feu a 
house. cette maison. (absolute meaning.) 

Tout le monde sait quel est celui qui a 
mis le feu a cette maison. (relative 
meaning.) 

468. The second sentence could idiomatically be expressed by : 

Qui sont ces personnes que nous voyons 6ur la colline; 

using qui in the plural ; but the former should be preferred, because 
qui being absolute in its meaning, ought not, as we have said, to be 
19 



218 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

used in relation to any noun, whilst quel, on the contrary, should 
always be employed when the pronoun who relates to one. 

The two last, show how absolute pronouns are used in sentences 
which are not interrogative ; in the first, qui is employed in an abso- 
lute meaning ; it relates to no noun ; in the second, quel is used in 
relation to celui, which, standing for the expression, the man or the 
person, that is singular and masculine, requires the pronoun quel to be 
used in that number and gender. 

OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHOM. 

469. The absolute pronoun whom is expressed by qui, whether it is 
preceded by a preposition or not, or by qui est-ce que, (who is it 
whom;) but qui should be preferred, for the same reason we gave 
when we spoke of qui est-ce qui, who. 

Qui used for whom is of either number and gender ; it is absolute 
in its meaning, and only refers to persons ; as in, 

Whom have you seen in the public gar- Qui avez-vous vu aujourd'hui dans le 

den to-day 1 jardin public 1 

Of whom were you speaking when my De qui parliez-vous quand mon frere est 

brother came in 1 entre. 

With whom will you go to the theatre Avec qui irez-vous ce soir au theatre "? 

to-night 1 

I do not know whom you mean. Je ne sais de qui vous voulez pavler. 

Nobody knows whom he will marry. Personne ne sait qui il epousera. 

In the first sentence, qui signifies what persons, and is plural and 
feminine ; in the second, it means what person, and is feminine and 
singular, &c. ; showing, as we have said, that this pronoun may be 
used in either number and gender. Qui, used instead of whom, 
has no other good equivalent in French ; qui est-ce que being a Galli- 
cism, which ought to be avoided in good language. 



OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHOSE. 

470. The absolute pronoun whose is employed to convey different 
meanings in English ; we shall examine them separately. 

471. Whose, used in an interrogative sentence, before a noun fol- 
lowed by the verb to be, and signifying either to belong, whose turn is 
it, or whose duty or right is it to do a thing, is expressed in French 
by d, qui, to whom, and the sentence takes the following form : 

Whose book is this 1 A qui est ce livre 1 or, A pui ce livre 

est-il 1 
Whose turn is it to play * A qui est-ce d jouer 1 



PKONOUX. 219 

Whose duty is it to mount guard to- A qui est-ce de monter la garde au- 
day 1 jourd'hui 1 

472. Whose, employed when a comparison is meant between two 
or more persons or things, is rendered by, Who is that of whom, or 
Who are those of whom; Quel est celui dont, Quelle est celle dont, Quels 
sont ceux dont, Quelles sont celles dont, according to the number and 
gender of the noun to which that pronoun relates ; as in, 

You had two French teachers ; whose Vous avez eu deux maitres de Fran- 
lessons do you like die best 1 cais; quel est celui dont vous preferez 

les lecons 1 
You had many friends, but we never Vous avez eu beaucoup d'amis, mais 
knew whose feelings were the most nous n'avons jamais su quel est celui 
congenial to yours. dont les sentiments se rapprochaient 

le plus des votres. 

We should state here that whose, used as an absolute pronoun, is 
never expressed in French by dont. 

OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT. 

473. The absolute pronoun what is used either in interrogative, 
affirmative or exclamative sentences. 

OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT, USED IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

474. When the absolute pronoun what is used in an interrogative 
sentence, it may either signify what thing, or relate to a noun 
expressed after the next verb. 

475. When what signifies what thing, and is not preceded by a 
preposition, it is expressed by que, or qu'est-ce que, when used objec- 
tively ; and by qu'est-ce qui, when employed as a nominative. Its 
meaning is absolute and indefinite, and it is therefore deprived of 
number and gender ; as in, 

What are you doing there 1 Que faites-vous la 1 

What does your brother want 1 Que desire votre frere 1 or, Que votre 

frere desire-t-il 1 
What wakes her up in the middle of Qu'est-ce qui la reveille au milieu de la 
the night 1 nuit 1 

476. What, signifying of what moment, or consequence, and used 
before the verb to be, is also expressed by que, or qu'est-ce que, and the 
sentence is constructed as follows : 

What are men before God 1 Que, or qu'est-ce que, sont les horames 

devant Dieu 1 



220 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



477. Que, or qu'est-ce que, when used with a verb followed by an 
adjective, requires the preposition de to be placed before that adjective, 
which is always singular and masculine. This preposition stands for 
the expression which, is, always understood when the antecedent of 
an adjective has a vague and indefinite meaning ; as in, 

What is the news to-day % (What do Que dit-on de nouveau aujourd'hui 1 
they say which is [of] new to-day 1) or, Qu'est-ce qu'on dit de nouveau 

aujourd'hui 1 

478. What, signifying what thing, and preceded by a preposition, 
whatever may be the place of that preposition in English, or whether 
it is expressed or understood, is expressed by quoi ; as in, 

What are you talking about 1 De quoi parlez-vous 1 

What is that man aiming at 1 A quoi cet homme vise-t-il 1 

479. What, preceded by a preposition, is sometimes elegantly 
expressed by que instead of de quoi, (of what,) and d, quoi, (to what ;) 
as in, 

What is the use of science without Que (a quoi) sert la science sans la 

virtue 1 (to what is science useful 1) vertu 1 

What is the use for a miser to own Que (de quoi) sert a l'avare d'avoir 

riches 1 (of what use is it 1) des tresors 1 

480. Whenever what does not mean what thing, it relates to a noun 
which it precedes immediately, or which is placed after the verb ; and 
whether it be preceded by a preposition or not, it is then expressed by 
quel, and this pronoun agrees in number and gender with the noun 
to which it relates ; as in, 

What is the news to-day 1 Quelles sont les nouvelles aujourd'hui 1 

What are your motives to act as you Quels sont vos motifs pour agir comme 

you do 1 vous le faites 1 

To what hotel do you go ? A quel hotel allez-vous 1 

Of what dress do you speak to me 1 .De quelle robe me parlez-vous *? 

481. What, in proverbial interrogative sentences, may also be 
expressed by qui, which then relates to things ; as in, 

What gives a character to a bird 1 Its Qui, or qu'est-ce qui, fait l'oiseaul C'est 

plumage. le plumage. 

What makes a monk 1 It is not his Qui, or qu'est-ce qui, fait-le moine *? Ce 

dress. n'est pas son habit. 

But we could not say, 

What are the northern states 1 Qui sont les itats du nord ? 



PRONOUN. 221 

What are the ancient empires 1 Qui eont les anciens empires? 

because these sentences are not proverbial ; quel should be used 
instead of qui. 

OP THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT, USED IN EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES. 

482. When the absolute pronoun what is used before a noun in an 
exclamative sentence, whether that noun be qualified by an adjective, 
or preceded by a or an, or not, it is expressed by quel, quelle, quels or 
quelles, according to the number and gender of that noun, and a or an 
is not expressed ; as in, 

What a beautiful morning ! let us go Quelle belle matinee ! allons a la cam- 

into the country. pagne. 

What splendid horses ! where do they Quels magnifiques chevaux ! d'ou vien- 

come from \ nent-ils % 

483. When the absolute pronoun what is used before the verb to be 
followed by an adjective, the verb is omitted in French ; its place is 
supplied, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, by the preposi- 
tion de, and what is expressed by quoi; as in, 

What is more instructive and amusing Quoi de plus instructif et de plus amu- 
than to read celebrated writers in sant que de lire les auteurs celebres 
their own language 1 dans leur propre langue 1 

484. Que and combien are sometimes used in exclamative sentences 
in the sense of how, how many, how much, or what, and the sentences 
are constructed as follows : 

How terrible and powerful religion is ! Que (or combien) la religion est terrible 

et puissante ! 
What an amiable family is that of Mr. Que (or combien) lafamille de Monsieur 
L** ; but what a disgusting one is L** est aimable ; mais que (or com- 
that of Mr. C** \ bien) celle de Monsieur C** est re- 

poussante ! 

The first part of this sentence could also be constructed as follows : 

Quelle aimable famille que celle de Monsieur L**, mais, &c 

What a fine girl she would have been Que (or combien) elle eut ete belle, or 
if she had not experienced this mis- quelle belle file, elle aurait ete si elle 
fortune ! n'avait pas eprouve ce malheur ! 

OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT, USED IN AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES. 

485. When the absolute pronoun what is used in a sentence which 
is neither interrogative nor exclamative, it. is expressed by que or 

19* 



222 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



quoi, according to its being preceded by a preposition or not, when 
it relates to no noun ; and by quel, when it does relate to one ; as in, 



I asked him many questions; but he 
did not know what to answer. 

Why do you not join in the conversa- 
tion 1 Because I do not know what 
you are speaking of. 

I do not know what to decide. 

Do you go to the ball to-night 1 Yes, 
but I do not know what dress I shall 
wear. 



Je lui fis plusieurs questions ; mais il ne 

sut que repondre. 
Pourquoi ne vous melez-vous pas a la 

conversation 1 Parceque je ne sais 

de quoi vous parlez. 
Je ne sais a quoi me decider. 
Allez-vous ce soir au bal 1 Oui, mais 

je ne sais qelle robe je mettrai. 



OF THE AESOLUTE PRONOUN WHICH. 

486. The absolute pronoun which, when used in an interrogative 
sentence, without being followed by the preposition of, and referring 
to a noun before expressed, is rendered in French either by le quel, 
quel, or quel est celui qui or que, which agree in number and gender 
with the noun referred to ; as in. 



You have seen these 
the prettiest 1 



lies ; which is 



You have seen these ladies ; which do 
you prefer 1 



Vous avez-vu ces dames ; quelle est la 

plus jolie 1 or, quelle est celle qui est 

la plus jolie 1 
Vous avez-vu ces dames ; la quelle pre- 

ferez-vous 1 or, quelle est celle que 

vous preferez 1 



It results from these two examples, that, when the absolute pronoun 
which is followed by the verb to be, it is either expressed by quel or 
guel est celui qui or que; but when the verb which follows it is not 
the verb to be, it is rendered either by le quel, or quel est celui qui or 
que, 

487. Which, when followed by of, and referring to a noun follow- 
ing, may be expressed either by le quel de preceding the noun used in 
the English sentence, which noun is then followed by the verb in the 
interrogative form, or by quel est celui de before the noun following, 
this noun being itself followed by one of the relative pronouns qui, 
que, dont, &c, before the next verb used in the affirmative form, 
according to this relative pronoun standing as its nominative, or its 
direct or indirect object ; as in, 



Which of your sisters do you like the 
best 1 (speaking of one sister only.) 

Which of your sons have you heard 
from 1 (speaking of more than one 
eon.) 



La quelle de vos scaurs aimez-vous le 
mieux 1 or, Quelle est celle de vo3 
soeurs que vous aimez le mieux 1 

Des quels de vos fils avez-vous recu 
des nouvelles % or, Quels sont ceux de 
vos fils dont vous avez repu des nou- 
velles % 



PRONOUN. 



223 



Which of these two gentlemen was Le quel de ces deux messieurs vous par- 
speaking to you when I met you 1 lait quand je vous ai rencontre 1 or, 

Quel est celui de ces deux messieurs 
qui vous parlait quand je vous ai ren- 
contre 1 
Which of these books costs you the Les quels de ces livres vous content le 
most 1 (speaking of more than one plus cher 1 or, Quel sont ceux de ces 
book.) livres qui vous coiitent le plus cher 1 

488. When which, followed by of, instead of preceding a noun, 
comes before a pronoun, it may also be expressed by qui, which then 
may transmit to the following verb and adjectives the gender, but not 
the number, of the pronoun governed by of; as in, 

Which of you, ladies, will be bold Qui, or la quelle de vous , mesdames, sera 
enough to attack me ? (speaking of assez hardie pour m'attaquer 1 or, 
one lady.) Quelle est-celle de vous, mesdames, qui 

sera assez hardie pour m'attaquer 1 
Which of you, gentlemen, will go to Les quels de vous, messieurs, veulent 
Texas with me 1 (speaking of more aller au Texas avec moi 1 or, Quels 
than one gentleman.) sont ceux de vous, messieurs, qui 

veulent aller au Texas avec moi 1 

Qui may be followed by a feminine adjective, because the noun 
ladies shows sufficiently the gender of that pronoun ; but as there is 
nothing in either of these sentiments which indicates in a definite 
manner whether the attack is to be made by more than one of the 
ladies, or if there is more than one gentleman offering to go to Texas, 
qui being deprived of the signs of the plural, the verb and adjective 
following cannot be used in that number ; and when the mind alludes 
to more than one person, in sentences of this kind, the expressions 
les quels, or quels sont ceux, should be resorted to. 

489. The absolute pronoun which, used in a sentence which is not 
interrogative, may relate to a noun either already expressed or men- 
tioned afterwards ; in the former case, it may be rendered by quel, or 
quel est celui qui, que, dont, &c, with the verb to be; or by le quel, 
or quel est celui qui, que dont, &c, with any other verb ; as in, 

You have seen these ladies, and you Vous avez-vu ces dames, et vous ne 
cannot tell which is the prettiest. pouvez pas me dire quelle est la plus 

jolie, or, quelle est celle qui est la plus 
jolie. 
Look at these two horses, and tell me Regardez ces deux chevaux, et dites 
which you prefer. moi le quel, (or quel est celui que) 

vous preferez. 

490. In the latter case, that is to say, when which relates to a noun 
which it precedes, that pronoun is expressed either by le quel or quel 



224 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



est celui; the former followed by de, and the noun governed by that 
preposition ; the latter by de and the same noun, followed by one of 
the relative pronouns qui, que, dont, &c., according to the meaning of 
the sentence ; as in, 



Tell me which of these houses you 
want to buy. 

I should like to know which of these 
books cost you the most. 



Dites moi la quelle de ces maisons, or, 
quelle est celle de ces maisons, que vous 
voulez acheter. 

Je desirerais savoir les quels de ces 
livres, or, quels sont ceux de ces livres, 
qui vous coutent le plus cher. 



491. The remark we have made when speaking of which followed 
by a personal pronoun, in interrogative sentences, is applicable to 
those which are affirmative ; as in, 



Tell me, ladies, which of you are my 
friends. 

I must know, children, which of you 
stole my preserves. 



Dites moi, mesdames, les quelles de 
vous sont mes amies, or, quelles sont 
celles de vous qui sont mes amies. 

II faut que sache, mes enfants, le quel, 
or, qui de vous, or, quel est celui de 
vous qui, a vole mes confitures. 



OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHERE. 

492. The absolute pronoun where is used in interrogative and 
affirmative sentences, and is always expressed by ou. 

Where is an absolute pronoun whenever it is used without an ante- 
cedent, and may be turned by a noun of things united to the pronoun 
quel, or when it stands for what, quoi ; this pronoun may be preceded 
by either of the prepositions par and de; as in, 



Where do you go 1 
Where do you come from 1 
Which way (by where) will you go 1 
What do you aim at 1 
How (by what) do you intend to suc- 
ceed 1 
I do not know where I am going. 
Tell me which way you came. 

I should like to know whence you 
came. 



(En quel lieu) ou allez-vous 1 

(De quel lieu) d'ou venez-vous 1 

(Par quel lieu) par ou passerez-vous 1 

(A quoi) ou aspirez-vous 1 

(Par quoi) par oil en viendrez-vous a 

bouf? 
Je ne sais (en quel lieu) ou je vais *? 
Dites moi (par quelle route) par ou 

vous etes venu 1 
Je voudrais savoir (de quel lieu) d'ou 

vous venez ? 



PRONOUN. 225 

QUESTIONS. 

465. What is the definition of an absolute pronoun 1 
465. In what kind of sentences are they used 1 

465. What are the French absolute pronouns corresponding to the English 
ones, who, wliom, ivhose, what, which and where? 

466. How is who expressed when taken in an absolute meaning 1 
466. How is it'ho expressed when it relates to a noun following 1 

466. Of what number and gender is the pronoun qui, and with what does the 
pronoun quel agree 1 

467. Which is preferable, qui or qui est-ce qui? and why 1 

468. When who is used as the nominative of a plural verb in English, how 
should it be expressed, by qui or quel? 

468. Why, in the preceding case, is quel preferable to qui? 

46S. Is the absolute pronoun who used in sentences which are not interroga- 
tive 1 and how is it expressed dien 1 

469. How is the absolute pronoun whose expressed, whether it is preceded or 
not by a preposition 1 

469. Which. should be preferred instead of whom, qui or qui est-ce que? 

469. Of what number and gender is qui used for whom ? Is it absolute in its 
meaning, or does it refer to a noun 1 

470, 471. Whenever whose, used as an absolute pronoun, conveys an idea of 
property, turn, or duty, how is it expressed in French 1 If the sentence implies 
an idea of turn, what preposition should be used after the verb to be, before the 
infinitive following % (The same question when the sentence implies an idea of 
duty or right.) 

472. How is ivhose expressed when it implies an idea of comparison between 
several persons or things 1 

472. Is the absolute pronoun whose ever expressed by dont ? 

473. In what kind of sentences is the absolute pronoun what used 1 

474. What is the meaning of the absolute pronoun what in interrogative sen- 
tences 1 

475. When what signifies what thing, and is not preceded by a preposition, 
how is it expressed 1 

476. When what, signifying of what moment or consequence, is used with the 
verb to be, how is it expressed 1 

477. When the verb which follows what is itself followed by an adjective, by 
what should this adjective be preceded 1 

477. Why is the preposition de used before adjectives in cases similar to the 
preceding 1 

478. How is what expressed when, signifying what thing, it is preceded by a 
preposition 1 

479. How is the absolute pronoun what sometimes elegantly expressed, when 
preceded by a preposition, and meaning what thing? 

480. Whenever what does not signify what thing, does it not relate to a noun 
following, and how is it expressed % 

480. Does quel agree with the noun to which it refers, and can it be or not 
preceded by a preposition 1 

481. Cannot what, which relates to things, be sometimes expressed by qui, 
which generally relates to persons 1 and in what kind of sentences 1 

482. How is what expressed before a noun qualified or not by an adjective, in 
exclamative sentences 1 

483. Is the adjective a or an, placed in English after what, ever expressed in 
French 1 

483. When, in exclamative sentences, what is used before the verb to be, in 
English, this verb being followed by an adjective, is that verb expressed in 
French 1 By what is it replaced 1 and how is the pronoun what rendered 1 

484. How are the English pronouns how, how many, how much, and what, 



226 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



in exclamative sentences, sometimes rendered in English % (Let the pupil recite 
the examples.) 

485. How is the pronoun what expressed in sentences which ai-e neither inter- 
rogative nor exclamative 1 

486. When the absolute pronoun which is used in interrogative sentences, 
without being followed by of, and relating to a noun before expressed, how is it 
rendered in French, as the nominative of the verb to be? 

486. How is that pronoun expressed, in the same circumstances as above, 
when used as the object of any verb 1 

487. When the pronoun which, followed by of, relates to a noun following, 
how is it expressed 1 

487. When, in the preceding case, which is expressed by le qxiel, what form 
does the sentence assume 1 and how is it when which is expressed by quel est 
celui que, qui dont, &LC.1 

488. When which, still followed by of, relates to a pronoun instead of a noun, 
how can it be expressed besides le quel and quel est celui? 

4S8. When which is expressed by qui, can it be followed by a feminine adjec- 
tive, and why 1 Can it be followed by a verb in the plural, and why not 1 

489. When the absolute pronoun which is used in a sentence which is not 
interrogative, and relates to a noun already expressed, how is it expressed 1 

490. What is the case when which relates to a noun expressed afterwards 1 
How is the sentence constructed in this latter case 1 

491. When which, in a sentence which is not interrogative, is followed by a 
pronoun governed by of, instead of being followed by a noun, what rules should 
be observed 1 

492. How is the absolute pronoun where expressed, and in what meaning is 
ou a pronoun 1 

492. By what prepositions can it be preceded 1 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

493. Indefinite pronouns are words which serve to designate persons 
and things in an indefinite manner, which relate only to a vague object, 
and present to the mind nothing fixed or precise. 

The words which are called indefinite pronouns are not all real 
pronouns ; some would be better qualified by being called adjectives ; 
but, as they are generally known under the name of pronouns, for the 
sake of clearness we will give them this denomination. 

Indefinite pronouns are divided into four classes, distinct from each 
other; as, 

1st. Those which are never joined to a noun. 
2d. Those which are always joined to a noun. 
3d. Those which are sometimes joined to a noun, and sometimes 
not. 

4th. Those which are followed by the conjunction que. 



PRONOUN, 



227 



OP INDEFINITE PRONOUNS WHICH ARE NEVER JOINED TO A NOUN. 

494. The pronouns of this class are the following : 



Some one, they, yon, we, somebody, people, &c, 

Somebody, one, some one, anybody, any one, &c, 

Whoever, whosoever, any person that, all those who, &c, 

Everybody, each, every one, 

One another, each other, 

Other people, others, 

Nobody, no one, none, no man, anybody, any one, any 

man, 
Nothing, not anything, anything, 



on. 

quelqu'un. 

quiconque. 

chacun. 

l'un l'autre. 

autrui. 



personne. 
rien. 



These words are real pronouns, because they are never joined to 
the noun to which they relate, but, on the contrary, take its place, 

OF THE ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS, THEY, ONE, A MAN, A WOMAN, SOMEBODY 
PEOPLE, WE, YOU, I, ETC., TAKEN IN AN INDEFINITE SENSE. 

495. Whenever any of the expressions they, one, a man, a woman, 
somebody, people, we, you, I, &c, or any other having the same vague 
meaning, are taken in an indefinite sense, they are expressed by on. 

This pronoun is always used as a nominative ; it indicates a sort of 
third person, vague and indefinite ; it is probably derived from the 
word homme, man, as an abbreviation ; in fact, wnen we say, 



One plays, one studies, 



On joue, on etudie, 



it is as if we said, man plays, man studies. This pronoun, which is 
in constant use in the language, is only used in relation to persons ; 
it always governs in the singular the verb of which it is the nom- 
inative, and generally requires the nouns and adjectives used in 
reference to itself to be in the singular and in the masculine ; as in, 



They. 

They speak, they play. 
They came to fight. 



On parle, on joue. 
On en vint aux mains. 



One. 



One loves to flatter one's seif. 



On aime a se flatter. 



A man. 



A man is not always master of his own On n'est pas toujours maitre de soi . 
temper. 



228 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

A woman. 

It is not always in the power of a wo- On n'est pas toujours maitresse d'aller 
man to go where she likes. ou 1'on veut. 

Somebody. 
Somebody knocks at the door. On frappe a la porte. 

People. 
People think and say openly. On pense et l'on dit tout haut. 

We. 

We acquire experience at our own ex- On acquiert de l'expe>ience a ses d6- 
pense. pens. 

You. 

You will find troublesome people every- On trouve partout des importuns. 
where. 



When I tell you that I depend upon Quand on vous dit que l'on compte sur 
you. vous. 



496. We have said that the pronoun on generally governs the sin- 
gular and the masculine ; this is always the case in reference to the 
verb following, which is never in the plural ; but there are instances 
in which that verb can be followed either by nouns or adjectives used 
in the plural and in the feminine ; this is the case when the sentence 
alludes clearly to several indivduals, and to ladies ; as in, 

A woman. 

One is not always young and pretty. On n'est pas toujours jeune etjolie. 

When one is pretty, one is not ignorant Quand on est jolie, on ne l'ignore paa. 
of it. 

Men. 

We are not slaves to be so badly On n'est pas des esclaves pour £tre si 
treated. maltraites. 



OF THE PRONOUN ON, PRECEDED BY ET, SI, OU, AND QUE. 

497. When the pronoun on is preceded by any of the words ei, ou 



PRONOUN. 229 

si, V ought to be prefixed to the pronoun, for the sake of euphony ; 
as, 

If we knew how to limit our wishes, we St Von savait borner ses desirs, on 

should spare ourselves a great deal s'epargnerait bien des maux, et Von 

of trouble, and we should gain many se procurerait beaucoup d'avan- 

advantages. tages. 

The place where one goes. Le lieu ou Von va. 

But this rule should not be observed where the pronoun on is fol- 
lowed by a word beginning- with an /, as le, la, lui, les, &c. ; still, for 
the mere satisfaction of the ear ; as, 

They will receive a letter, and they will On recevra une lettre, et on la lira tout 
read it aloud. haut. 

L'on la lira would be intolerable. 

The same remark is applicable to the word que, when followed 
dv a verb beginning with the letter c, having the sound of k; as, 

We learn much more easily what we On apprend beaucoup plus facilement 

understand, than that which we do les choses que Von comprend, que 

not. celles que Von ne comprend pas. 

Laziness is a fault which is rarely cor- La paresse est un defaut que Von corrige 

rected. rarement. 

But when que is followed by a verb beginning with any other letter 
than c, the / is suppressed or not, according to taste. 

OF THE REPETITION OF THE PRONOUN ON. 

498. The pronoun on should be repeated before each verb which 
has it for its nominative ; as, 

They praise him, blame him, threaten On le loue, on le blame, on le menace, 
him, caress him; but whatever they on le caresse; mais quoiqu'ow fasse, 
do, they cannot get along with him. on ne peut en venir a bout. 

499. "When the pronoun on is repeated, it must relate to the same 
object. The following phrase, 

One believes himself to be loved, and On croit dtre aime, et Von ne vous 
one is not loved, aime pas, 

is incorrect, because the pronoun on has two antecedents ; it is not the 
same person who believes he is loved and who does not love ; we 
ought to say. 

On croit etre aime, et on ne Test pas. 



230 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SOME ONE, ANYONE, SOMEBODY, ANYBODY, 
ONE, A FEW, ETC. 

500. The indefinite expressions some one, any one, somebody, any- 
body, one, or any other having the same meaning, are expressed by 
the indefinite pronoun quelqu'un. 

This pronoun is either used in an absolute meaning, that is to say, 
relating to no noun, or it relates to one. 

When used without reference to a noun or pronoun, quelqu'un is 
only employed in relation to persons, and has no feminine and no plu- 
ral ; it may be used as the nominative or the object of a verb ; as in, 

Somebody has been here to-day, who- Quelqu'un est venu ici aujourd'hui,qui 

wanted to speak to you. avait besoin de vous parler. 

How do you know this 1 I have it Comment savez-vous cela 1 Je le tiens 

from somebody. de quelqu'un. 

Has any one come to-day % Quelqu'un est-il venu aujourd'hui 1 

501. But, when referring to a noun or pronoun, it is used in rela- 
tion to persons and things, it takes either number and gender, whether 
it be employed as a nominative or an object ; and is always followed 
by of, de, before the noun, pronoun, or adjective which it governs ; as 



Speaking of a lady, 

Tell me the name of your friends, and Nommez-moi vos amies, et je verrai 
I will see whether I know any of j'en connais quelqu'une. 
them. 



Speaking of pamphlets, 

Have you still any of those pamphlets 
you showed me the other day 1 



Speaking of a gentleman, 

Will any of you, gentlemen, go hunting 
with me to-day 1 

Speaking of jewels, 

If you wish to buy rings, I have some 
very pretty ones, that I will sell you 
very cheap. 

Speaking of a horse, 

Did any of my horses run away last 
night 1 



Avez-vous encore quelques unes de ces 
brochures que vous m'avez montrees 



autre jour 



Quelqu'un de vous, messieurs, veut-il 
venir aujourd'hui a la chasse avec 



Si vous voulez acheter des bagues, j'en 
ai quelques unes de tre~s jolies, que 
je vous vendrai bon marche. 



Quelqu'un de mes chevaux s'est-il 
echappe la nuit derniere 1 



PRONOUN. 231 

The preposition of, de, is placed between the pronoun quelqu'un 
and the adjective which follows it, on account of the vague and 
indefinite meaning of that pronoun, which does not admit of its being 
immediately qualified by an adjective ; of takes the place of the 
expressions which is or ivhich are, which, as we have already 
explained it, are idiomatically rendered in French by de. 

OF WHOEVER, WHOSOEVER, ANY PERSON THAT, ALL THOSE WHO, ETC. 

502. The indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, any person 
that, all those who, or any other conveying the same vague meaning, 
are expressed by quiconque. This pronoun has no plural ; it is gen- 
erally masculine, but takes the feminine occasionally. 

It is only used in relation to persons, and has the peculiarity of con- 
taining the relative qui and its antecedent, so as to be used as the 
nominative of two verbs, or to be the nominative of one and the object 
of another ; as in the following sentences, 

Whoever knows men, learns not to Quiconque connait les horames, apprend 

trust them. a s'en defier. 

This speech is for those who are Ce discours s'adresse a quiconque est 

guilty. coupable. 

In the first sentence, quiconque is nominative of the verbs connait 
and apprend; and in the second, it is nominative of est and objective 
of s'adresse. 

In the following sentence, according to the decision of the 
Academy, the pronoun is used in the feminine, as having a positive 
relation to women : 

Whoever of you will be bold enough to Quiconque de vous sera assez hardie 
slander me, I will cause her to repent pour medire de moi, je l'en ferai re- 
of it. pentir. 

But this mode of expression is out of use, and should be avoided ; 
it should be as follows : 

Celle de vous qui sera assez hardie, &c. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, EVERYBODY, EVERY ONE, EACH, EACH ONE, 
EVERY, ETC. 

503. The indefinite expressions everybody, every one, each, each one, 
every, &c, or any other of the same kind, are expressed by chacun, 
which means, all the individuals of a species taken one after another. 
This pronoun follows nearly the same rules as quelqu'un ; when used 



232 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

in an absolute meaning, that is to say, without reference to any noun 
or pronoun, chacun is only used in relation to persons ; it is always 
singular and masculine, and is always used as a nominative ; as in, 

Everybody says the king will declare Chacun dit que le roi declarera la 

war to England. guerre a l'Angleterre. 

Every one should mind his own busi- Chacun devrait s'occuper de ses pro- 

ness. pres affaires. 

504. But when chacun refers to a noun or a pronoun, it may relate 
either to persons or things ; it is used in either gender, but not 
in the plural, and is always followed by of, which comes before the 
noun or pronoun which is governed by it, except when it is placed 
at the end of the sentence ; but in this case, the pronoun en, of it, 
or of them, is placed before the verb ; as in, 

Each one of these books has its own Chacun de ces livres a sa place dans ma 

place in my library. bibliotheque. 

If you behave well, I will make a Si vous vous conduisez bien, je ferai un 

present to every one of you. cadeau a chacun de vous. 

Speaking of ladies, 

You see these pretty flowers ; if you are Vous voyez ces jolies fleurs; eh bien ! 
good, I will give one to each one of si vous etes sages, je rows en donnerai 
you. une a chacune; or, j'en donnerai une 

a chacune dc vous. 

The old phrase un chacun, for every one, is no longer admitted ia 
the language. 

505. We have now to solve a difficulty, so much the more embar- 
rassing that its solution rest upon a very subtle mode of reasoning. 

Chacun, although it is always singular, is sometimes followed by 
the adjective pronouns, son, sa, ses, his, her, and sometimes by leur, 
leurs, their ; the following rules must be observed in these cases. 

When in the sentence there are no plural nouns of which chacun is 
the distributive, son, sa, ses, ought to be used ; as in, 

He gave each one his share. II donna a chacun sa part. 

Let every one mind his own business. Que chacun songe a ses affaires. 

We shall reward each one according to Nous recompenserons chacun suivant 
his merit. son merite. 

But when chacun is contrasted with a plural noun of which it is 
the distributive, the following distinction should be made : 

506. Son, sa, ses, are used after chacun, when the verb of the first 



PRONOUN. 



233 



proposition is immediately followed by an object with which it forms 
a complete sense ; as in, 

They all brought their offerings to the lis ont tous apporte leurs offrandes au 
temple, each according to his means temple, chacun suivant ses moyens et 
and devotion. sa devotion. 

Men ought to love one another, each Les hommes devraient s'aimer les uns 
for his own interest. les autres, chacun pour son propre 

interet. 

In these two sentences, the collective idea is completed after the 
plural objects offrandes and les uns les autres have been expressed ; 
for, 

lis ont tous apporte leurs offrandes, 

Les hommes devraient s'aimer les uns les autres, 

are sentences complete in their meaning ; and it remains for the pro- 
noun chacun to show how the actions expressed by the verbs have 
been performed by their nominatives acting separately. 

507. But when, on the contrary, chacun is placed before the object 
of the verb, which object denotes the things or persons to be distrib- 
uted by that pronoun, the plural idea is not completed when chacun 
appears in the sentence, and that plural idea should be conveyed to 
the last by the pronouns leur or lews ; as in, 

Men ought, for the interest of all, to Les hommes devraient avoir, chacun 
love another. pour leur interet, de l'amour les uns 

pour les autres. 

In this sentence, the first proposition, les hommes devraient avoir, 
does not form a complete sense, and therefore cannot, as in the first 
instance, be followed by the pronouns of the third person singular, 
son, sa, ses; leur or leurs should be used in their stead. 

These rules in regard to the proper use of chacun are rather meta- 
physical, and do not strike the mind as being based upon the true 
principle of analogy ; but they are admitted by all grammarians, 
through the authority of our best writers, and make a law in our 
language. Foreigners should study them carefully. 

508. When the verb of the principal proposition has no object, it 
that proposition is complete in its meaning, either of the pronouns 
son, sa, ses, or leur and leurs, may be used, according to the manner 
in which the sentence is punctuated ; as in, 

All the judges have voted, each accord- Tous les juges ont vote, chacun selon 
ing to his own judgment. ses lumieres ; or, Touts les iuges ont 

vote, chacun, suivant leurs lumieres. 
20* 



234 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The first sentence signifies, 
All the judges have voted, and each one has voted according to his judgment j 
whilst the second is elliptical, and means, 

All the judges have voted according to their judgment; 
and, 

Each has done it according to his own. 

This last proposition being inserted in the principal, and separated 
from it by the pronoun chacun, placed between two commas. 

509. When chacun, contrasting with a plural noun of which it is 
the distributive, is followed by a pronoun, this pronoun is always 
used in the plural ; as in, 

The queen said to the deputies, that it La reine dit aux deputes, qu'il 6tait 
was time for them to return to their tems qu'ils s'en retournassont chacun 
home. chez eux. 

510. Whenever the expressions everybody, every one, &c, instead 
of conveying an idea of individuality, imply that of a whole, instead 
of being rendered by chacun, they are translated by tout le monde, all 
the world, and by tous, all ; as in, 

Everybody says the king is dead, but Tout le monde dit que le roi est mort, 

I do not believe it yet. mais je ne le crois pas encore. 

Every one of my friends has forsaken Tous mes amis m'ont abandoone dans 

me in my misfortune. mon malheur. 

OP THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, OTHER PEOPLE AND OTHERS. 

511. The indefinite expressions other people and others are ren- 
dered by autrui, which is only employed in relation to persons ; it is 
rarely used in speaking of a single individual ; it has neither gender 
nor number; it is never joined to an adjective, and is always preceded 
by a preposition ; as in, 

Do not envy other people's property. N'enviez pas le bien d'autrui. 
Do not do to others what you would not Ne faites pas d autrui ce que vous ne 
have done to you. voudriez pas qu'on vous fit. 

512. The pronoun autrui presents a difficulty, which is, to know 
whether and when the adjective possessive pronouns son, sa, ses, leur 
and leurs, or the personal pronoun en, must be used with it. 

Son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, ought to be used with autrui, when 



PRONOUN. 235 

the nouns to which these pronouns are prefixed are themselves pre- 
ceded by a preposition ; as in, 

You may take interest in others, with- Vous pouvez epouser les interets d'au- 
out approving all their actions. trui, sans etre le panegyriste de toutes 

leurs actions. 

But when the nouns to which son, sa, ses, leur, or leurs, ought to 
be prefixed are not preceded by a preposition, then the relative en is 
used with the article ; as in, 

Take interest in others, but take care Prenez les interets d'autrui, mais ayez 
not to espouse their quarrels. soin de n'en pas epouser les quer- 

elles. 

Leurs querelles would be a fault. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, ONE ANOTHER AND EACH OTHER. 

513. The indefinite expressions one another and each other are 
rendered by Tun Vautre, which is used in relation to persons and 
things ; it takes the feminine, Vune Vautre, and the plural, as, les wis 
les autres, les unes les autres; and always keeps the article before 
each of the words un and autre. 

These two words are used conjointly or separately. 

When used conjointly, they express a reciprocity between several 
persons or things ; then Pun acts as governing, and Vautre as gov- 
erned, so that the last only admits of a preposition before it ; as in, 

One must help another, On doit se secourir Vun Vautre, 

which means, 

L'un doit secourir l'autre ; 

{Vun being nominative, and Vautre objective.) 

People always suffer on account of the Les peuples souffrent toujours des 
wars which states carry on against guerres que les etats se font les uns 
(each other) one another. aux autres. 

514. Vun Vautre should not be mistaken for Vun et Vautre, which 
has a signification entirely different ; when we say, 

They destroy themselves, lis se detruisent Vun et Vautre, 

we express that each one destroys himself; but when we say, 

lis ee detruisent Vun Vautre, 



236 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

we express that one destroys the other, and the other destroys 
the one. 

Fire and water destroy each other, or Le feu et l'eau se detruisent Vun Vautre. 
one another. 

Vun et Vautre, in a sentence like this, would have no meaning. 

515. The two words Vun and Vautre, when used separately, indi- 
cate division ; they are no longer a single pronoun, but two distinct 
ones ; then Vun may be governed by a preposition as well as Vautre, 
which is not the case when they are united. Uun is used for the 
person or thing spoken first ; Vautre, for the other ; as in, 

Passions understand one another ; if we Les passions s'entendent les unes avec 
give way to one, we cause another to les autres; si l'on se laisse aller aux 
appear. unes, on attire les autres. 



OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, NOBODY, NO ONE, NONE, NO MAN, ANY. 
BODY, ANY ONE, ETC. 

516. The indefinite expressions, nobody, no one, none, no man, any- 
body, any one, &c, or any other having the same negative meaning, 
are expressed by the indefinite pronoun personne. 

The word personne is also sometimes a noun ; but in either case, it 
is only used in relation to persons. 

Personne, as a noun, is always feminine, and signifies a person. 
Personne, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular. 

517. It is always accompanied by the negation ne in sentences 
which are not interrogative ; but when used interrogatively, the nega- 
tion is sometimes dispensed with : as in, 

There is no person so badly informed II n'y a. personne, si peu instruit des af- 
about business as not to know his faires, qui ne sache quels sont ses in- 
own interest. terets. 

No one knows whether he is worthy of Personne ne sait s'z7 est digne d'amour 

love or hatred. ou de haine. 

T .„. . ... „ C Personne veut-il venir avec moil or, 

Is any one willing to come with me '.in *. -i • n 

jo l Personne ne veut-il venir avec mpi 1 

That office suits him better than any- Cette place lui convient mieux qu'a per- 

body else. sonne. (Elliptical.) 

In the following sentence, 

Is there any one here *? No, nobody, Y-a-t-il quelqu'un ici 1 Non, personne, 

personne is used elliptically for il n'y a personne; so that, if the nega- 
tion is not apparent in the sentence, it is easily supplied by the mind, 
;n destroying the ellipsis. 



PRONOUN. 237 

518. When personne means quelqu'un, anybody or any one, it is 
used only as nominative, and in phrases expressing interrogation 
or doubt ; then it is never followed by the negation ; as in, 

I doubt if anybody has ever described Je doute que personne (quelqu'un) ait 
nature so well as Guessner. jamais peint la nature aussi bien que 

Guessner. 
Has any one ever told a tale with more Personne (quelqu'un) a-t-il jamais 
candor than La Fontaine 1 conte plus naivement que La Fon- 

taine 1 
If ever any one is bold enough to un- Si jamais personne (quelqu'un) est as- 
dertake it, he will succeed. sez hardi pour l'entreprendre, il 

reussira. 

519. Although the generality of grammarians admit that the pro- 
noun personne is always masculine and singular, some pretend that 
when it evidently refers to ladies, it ought to take the feminine ; we 
agree with them, that in such cases the masculine should not be used, 
but we further say, that the pronoun ought not to be used at all, and 
the phrase be turned so as to dispense with it, as in the following ; 
instead of saying, 

Ladies, there are none of you bold Mesdames, il n'y a personne de vous 
euough to deny the truth of my argu- assez hardie pour nier la verite de 
ments, mes arguments, 

the sentence ought to be turned thus : 

Mesdames, il n'y a aucune de vous qui soit assez hardie pour, &c. 

The difficulty thus disappears, and the sentence is correct. 

520. Whenever the indefinite pronoun personne is followed by an 
adjective the preposition de should be placed between them, because, 
on account of its vague and indefinite meaning, personne cannot serve 
as an antecedent for an adjective ; de, as in the case of the pronoun 
quelqu'un, is used instead of the relative pronoun which, followed by 
the verb to be; as in, 

I know nobody as brave as you are. Je ne connais personne d'aussi brave 

que vous. 
There are no poor people in America. II n'y a personne de pauvre en Ame- 

rique. 

Personne, although of an indefinite character, may be the antece- 
dent of the personal pronoun il; as in, 

No man is rash when he is sure not to Personne n'est temeraire quand i7 est 

be seen. sur de n'etre pas vu. 

Nobody knows whether he is worthy Personne ne sait s'tf est digne d'amour 

of love or hatred. ou de haine. 



238 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Whenever the noun personne, which is always feminine, relates 
either to an adjective or a personal pronoun, this adjective or pronoun, 
instead of agreeing with that noun, agrees with the idea which it 
represents, and is used in the masculine ; but this can only take place 
when this adjective or pronoun is placed at some distance from the 
noun personne, or is not in the same proposition ; as in, 

Persons of consummate virtue have in Les personnes consommees dans la vertu 

everything a rectitude of mind and a ont en toutes choses une droiture 

judicious attention which prevent d'esprit et une attention judicieuse 

them from slandering anybody. qui les empechent d'etre medisants. 

The adjective medisants, in this sentence, is masculine plural, 
although it relates to the feminine noun personnes, because this noun 
relates to man in general, and does not forcibly recal to the mind a 
feminine idea so as to compel the agreement of the adjective. 

Although the interests of these three Quoique ces trois personnes eussent dea 

persons were entirely different, they interets bien differents, Us etaient 

were nevertheless all tormented by tous neanmoins tourmentes de la 

the same passion. meme passion. 

In this sentence, the pronoun Us, and the adjective and past par- 
ticiple tous and tourmentes, are not very far from the noun personne; 
but they are not used in the same proposition, and as the noun to 
which they refer does not positively represent a feminine idea, they 
may not agree with their antecedent itself, but with the idea which it 
represents, and be used in the masculine. 



OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, NOTHING, NOT ANYTHING, ANYTHING, ETC. 

521. The indefinite expressions nothing, not anything, anything, 
&c, are expressed by the indefinite pronoun rien. 

Rien is also a noun, and as a noun it signifies a thing of little value. 
As a pronoun, it is always singular and masculine, and only used 
in relation to things. 

522. Rien has two different significations, whether it is used with 
or without a negation. 

Rien, accompanied by a negation, signifies nulle chose, nothing; 
as in, 

It is better to do nothing than to spend II vaut mieux ne rien faire que de faire 
one's time in trifles. des riens. 

In this sentence, the first word, rien, is a pronoun, and is preceded 



PRONOUN. 239 

by the negation ; the second word, riens, is in the plural as a noun, 
and means trifles. 

He does not apply himself to anything 11 ne s'applique a rien de solide. 
substantial. 

5Q3. Rien, joined to the verb compter, to count, although without 
a negation, still signifies nothing ; as in. 

When one speaks as you do, it makes Quand on parle comme vous le faites, 
others diiuk that you count for noth- on donne a penser que Von compte 
ing virtue, honor, and probity. pour rien, la verlu, l'honneur, et la 

probite. 

524. Rien. without a negation, signifies quelque chose, anything, 
and is used only in sentences expressing interrogation or doubt ; as in, 

I doubt if there is anything better cal- Je doute que rien (quelque chose) soit 
culated to make an impression upon plus capable de faire impression sur 
people than the sight of the calami- les peuples que la rue des malheurs 
ties which have visited France. qu'a eprouves la France. 

Is anything better calculated to flatter Rien flatte-t-il si delicieusement l'es- 
the mind and the ear than a speech prit et l'oreille qu'un discours sage- 
uiselv conceived and noblv deliv- ment concu et noblement exprime * 
ered 1 

5-25. Ri^n. used as a direct object, is, in the simple tenses of verbs, 
placed after the verb, and in the compound tenses, between the aux- 
iliary and the past participle ; as in, 

He says nothing. II ne dit rien. 

He lias said nothing. II n'a rien dit. 

But when it is the object of an infinitive, it is placed before that 
infinitive ; as in, 

I cannot give you anything. Je ne puis vous rien donner. 

As an indirect object it is always placed after the verb, whatever may 
be the mood : as in, 

think of anything is better than Ne penser a rien vaut mieux que de 
to think of evil. penser au mal. 

526. Rien governs the preposition of, de, before the following 
adjective ; as in, 

Is anything more delightful 1 Est-il rien de plus delicieux? 

That man has nothing pleasing about Cet homme n'a en lui rien d'agrtable. 
him. 



240 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ALWAYS JOINED TO A NOUN. 

527. The pronouns of this class are four in number ; as, 

Some, any, quelque. 

Every, each, chaque. 

Whatever, whatsoever, any, any whatever, any whatsoever, quelconque. 

Certain, some, certain. 

These words ought not to be classed as pronouns ; they are adjec- 
tives ; but as custom and usage have determined their denomination 
we shall keep it, so as to be understood by all. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SOME AND ANY. 

528. Some and any are sometimes expressed by of, followed or not 
by the article the, and sometimes by quelque, which signifies one or 
several among a greater number, but always conveys the idea of a 
few ; it is used in relation to persons and things, and takes either 
number and gender ; as in, 

Do you bring any news 1 Apportez-vous quelque nouvelle 1 

Some (a) writer has said that. Quelque auteur a dit cela. 

I have bought some books. J'ai achete quelques livres. 

T heard from some persons that you J'ai entendu dire par quelques personnes 
were dead. que vous etiez mort. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, EVERY AND EACH. 

529. Every and each are expressed by chaque, which is of either 
gender, but has no plural ; it is a distributive adjective which desig- 
nates a person or a thing taken separately. 

Each man has his tastes, each country Chaque homme a ses gouts, chaque pays 
its manners. ses usages. 

The English pronoun every gives rise to many mistakes among for- 
eigners, and consequently requires some explanation. 

530. When every is joined to a noun, the extent of its signification 
must be ascertained before translating it ; if the meaning of the noun, 
joined to the pronoun each, awakens in the mind the idea of individu- 
ality, this pronoun ought to be expressed by the word chaque; as in, 

During the review, each soldier re- Pendant la revue, chaque soldat recut 
ceived a compliment for his good un compliment pour sa conduite en 
behavior in presence of the enemy. ^ presence de l'ennemi. 

At the exhibition of paintings, each A l'exposition de peinture, chaque tab- 
picture was placed in a proper light. leau etait place dans un jour conven- 

able. 



PRONOUN. 241 

The mind, in these two sentences, cannot help dividing the soldiers 
and pictures by individualities, because one soldier received his com- 
pliment after another had received his, and each picture was placed 
one by one, so as to receive its proper light. 

531. But if, on the contrary, the meaning expressed by each or 
every, and the noun which follows, presents to the mind the idea of a 
whole, without reference to individualities, then each is rendered by 
tout, all; as in, 

Every man is born with good and bad Tous les hommes naissent avec de bons 

propensities. et de mauvais penchants. 

I visited my cellar and found every J'ai visite ma cave et j'ai trouve toutes 

botde empty. les bouteilles vides. 

In these two sentences, the mind attaches no importance to the indi- 
viduality of man and bottle ; it is struck only with the idea of them as 
a whole, and every is expressed by tout. 

532. When chaque is used for every, it should always be followed 
by a noun ; this phrase, which is generally used, 

These books cost me one dollar each, Ces livres me coutent une gourde 

chaque, 

is wrong, and ought to be turned thus : 

Chacun de ces livres me coute une gourde. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, WHATEVER, WHATSOEVER, ANY, ANY WHAT- 
EVER, ANY WHATSOEVER. 

533. The indefinite expressions whatever, whatsoever, any, any 
whatever, any whatsoever, are expressed by the indefinite pronoun 
quelconque, which is of either gender and number. 

Although generally applied to things, this pronoun is sometimes 
used in relation to persons. 

It is generally accompanied by a negation, and placed after it; then 
it is only used in the singular. 

He was left with nothing at all. II ne lui est demeure chose quelconque 

(not used.) 

There is no reason which could compel II n'y a raison quelconque capable de 

him to do it. 1'y obliger (not used.) 

There is uobody in the world whom I II n'y a homme quelconque auquel je 

may trust. puisse me fier (not used.) 

A line being given, you must find its Une ligne quelconque etant donnee, 

length. trouvez sa longueur. 

Two points being given, you must find Deux points quelconques etant donnis 

the third. trouvez le troisi^me. 

21 



242 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, CERTAIN, SOME. 



534. The indefinite expressions certain and some are sometimes 
expressed by the indefinite pronoun certain, which is used in relation 
to persons and things, and takes either number and gender. 

It is usually preceded by un, a, an, but sometimes not ; as in, 

I know this from a certain author. Je sais ceci d'un certain auteur. 

Certain facts have come to my ear. Certains faits sont parvenus jusqu'a 

moi. 

The pronoun certain must not be mistaken for the adjective, which 
means sure, positive; as in, 

A certain fact and a fact certain are Un certain fait et un fait certain sont 
two different things. deux choses tres difFerente3. 



QUESTIONS. 



493. What is the definition of an indefinite pronoun 1 

493. Into how many classes are indefinite pronouns divided 1 (Mention the 
four classes.) 

494. What are the indefinite pronouns of the first class 1 (Let the pupil 
mention these pronouns, with their significations in English.) 

495. Is the pronoun on ever used objectively 1 Of what person is it, and what 
is its meaning 1 

495. What is its probable etymology'? Is it used in relation to persons or 
things "? In what number does it govern the verb following, as well as the noun 
and adjectives used in relation to itself? 

496. Are there not cases in which nouns and adjectives relating to the pro- 
noun on can be used in the feminine and in the plural 1 

497. Whenever the pronoun on is preceded by any of the conjunctions et, si, 
ou, and que, what does euphony require to be placed before it 1 

498. Should the pronoun on be repeated before each verb 1 

499. Can the pronoun on be repeated where it does not relate to the same 
object 1 

500. How are the English expressions some one, any one, somebody, anybody, 
&c, rendered in French 1 

500. When the pronoun quelqu'un is used without any reference to a follow- 
ing noun or pronoun, is it used in relation to persons and things 1 Is it used in 
the feminine and in the plural 1 Can it be used both as the nominative and the 
object of a verb 1 

501. How is the pronoun quelqu'un used, when it relates to a noun or pronoun 
used afterwards % 

501. Can the pronoun quelqu'un be immediately followed by an adjective 1 

501. Why is the preposition of, de, used after the pronoun quelqu'un, before 
an adjective "? 

502. How are the expressions whoever, whosoever, whomsoever, any person that, 
all those who, &c, rendered in French *? 

502. What are the number and gender of the pronoun quiconque ? 
502. Is the pronoun quiconque applied to persons or things 1 

502. Is it never used in relation to a feminine noun 1 

503. How are the expressions everybody, every one, each, each one, every, &c, 
expressed in French 1 



PRONOUN. 243 

503. When the pronoun chacun is used in an absolute meaning, does it refer 
to persons or things ? Of what number and gender is it 1 

504. How is the pronoun chacu?i used, when it relates to a noun or pronoun 1 
Does it relate to persons and things, and does it take the plural 1 

504. When followed by a noun or pronoun, what preposition is used between 
them 1 

505. When chacun is not contrasted by a plural noun, what are the possess- 
ive adjeetive pronouns which are used in relation to it 1 

506. What are the possessive adjective pronouns which are used after cha- 
cun, when the verb of die first proposition has an object and forms with it a 
complete sense 1 

507. But when chacun is placed between the verb and its object, what is the 
possessive adjective pronoun which should be used after chacun? 

508. When the verb of the first proposition has no object, and however the 
sense is completed, what possessive adjective pronoun should be used after cha- 
cun ? 

509. How should the sentence be punctuated, when using either son, sa, ses, 
or leur or leurs? 

509. What should always be the number of the personal pronoun used after 
chacun ? 

510. How are the expressions everybody, every one, &c, rendered, when, 
instead of referring to individualities, they carry the idea of a whole 1 

511. How are the expressions other people, others, &c, rendered 1 

511. Is the pronoun autrui used in relation to persons or things 1 Is it used 
in speaking of one or more persons 1 Has it any plural or feminine 1 Is it ever 
joined to an adjective 1 and is it ever used without being preceded by a preposi- 
tion 1 

512. In what case is the pronoun autrui followed by any of the possessive 
adjective pronouns son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs? 

512. In what case is the same pronoun used with en and the article 1 

513. How are the indefinite expressions one another and each other rendered 
in French 1 

513. Is the pronoun Pun I'autre used in relation to persons and things 1 
Does it take the feminine and the plural 1 

513. What idea does the pronoun Vun V autre convey, when the two words 
Vun and V autre are used together 1 

514. What is the difference between the expressions Vun V autre and Vun et 
V autre? 

515. What do the words Vun and Vautre indicate, when used separately 1 
Do they form thus one or two distinct pronouns 1 

516. How are the indefinite expressions nobody, no one, none, &c., rendered 
in French * 

516. Is the pronoun personne employed in relation to persons or things 1 
516. Is not the word personne sometimes used as a noun 1 

516. Of what gender is that word, when used either as a pronoun or a noun 1 

517. What should be the form of the sentence for the pronoun personne re- 
quiring to be accompanied by a negation % 

517. What is the English meaning of the pronoun personne, when used with- 
out the negation ne? 

518. When the pronoun personne is used without the negation ne, how is it 
employed, — as a nominative, or objectively \ 

519. Can the pronoun personne be followed by a feminine adjective 1 

520. Can the pronoun personne be immediately followed by an adjective 1 
Why cannot that pronoun be the antecedent of an adjective, and what is the 
meaning of the preposition de, which separates them 1 

520. Notwithstanding the indefinite character of the pronoun personne, can- 
not this pronoun be followed by the personal pronoun il? and if it can, why 1 
520. When the word personne is used as a noun, although it is then feminine, 



244 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

cannot the adjective or personal pronoun used in relation to it be used in the 
masculine, and why 1 and in what case 1 

521. How are the indefinite expressions nothing, not anything, anything, 
&c, rendered in French 1 

521. Is not the word rien sometimes used as a noun, and what does it sig- 
nify then 1 

521. When the word rien is used as a pronoun, of what number and gender 
is it. 1 Is it used in speaking of persons or things 1 

522. What does rien signify, when accompanied by a negation 1 

523. What does rien signify, when used without a negation, with the verb 
compter? 

524. What does rien signify, when used without a negation 1 

525. Where is the pronoun rien placed in simple and compound tenses, when 
used as the direct object of a verb 1 

525. Where is it placed, when the direct object of a verb in the infinitive 
mood 1 

525. Where is that pronoun placed, when used as the indirect object of a 
verb 1 

526. What preposition does rien govern before an adjective 1 

527. What are the indefinite pronouns which are always joined to a noun 1 
and what do they signify in English 1 

528. How are some and any expressed, when used as indefinite pronouns 1 
When expressed by quelque, do thev convev the idea of a great number or of a 
few! 

528. Is not the pronoun quelque sometimes used to signify one, in a vague 
manner 1 Does it apply to persons or things 1 Is it of either number and 
gender 1 

529. How are the indefinite expressions every and each expressed before a 
noun ! Is the pronoun chaque of either gender, and does it take the plural 1 
What does this pronoun signify % 

530. When the meaning of a noun preceded by every awakens in the mind an 
idea of individuality, how is it expressed ! 

531. How is this word every expressed, when it conveys the idea of a whole 1 

532. Can chaque, used for every, be used without its being followed by a 
noun ! 

533. How are the indefinite expressions, whatever, whatsoever, &c, expressed 
when joined to a noun 1 

533. Is the pronoun quelconque employed in relation to persons and things, 
and is it used in either number and gender 1 

533. When used with a negation, does it take the plural 1 

534. How is the indefinite expression certain expressed 1 

534. What is the difference in the meaning of the word certain, when used 
either as a pronoun or an adjective, and where is it placed in either case 1 



OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS SOMETIMES JOINED TO NOUNS, AND SOMETIMES 

NOT. 

535. The pronouns of this class are the following : 

No, none, not one, no man, no woman, nobody, nul. 

Not any, none, not one, aucun. 

No, not one, pas un. 

Other, autre. 

Both, either, l'un et 1'autre, l'un ou 

1 'autre. 

Neither, ni l'un ni 1'autre. 

Same, even, meme. 



PRONOUN. 245 

Such, tel. 

Several, many, plusieurs. 

All, every, everything, however, although, very, tout. 

These words, employed by themselves, are real pronouns ; when 
joined to a noun, they are mere adjectives. Some of them are some- 
times adverbs. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, NO, NONE, NOT ONE, NO MAN, NO WOMAN, 
NOBODY, ETC. 

536. The indefinite expressions, no, none, not one, no man, &c, 
can be rendered by the indefinite pronouns nut, aucun, and pas un. 

537. Nul, either as a pronoun or an adjective, is a sign of exclu- 
sion ; it is stronger in its meaning than aucun and pas un. It is 
always accompanied by a negation, takes either gender, but is never 
used in the plural as a pronoun ; as in, 

No one knows whether he deserves Nul ne sait s'il est digne d'amour ou 
love or hatred. de haine. 

Speaking of ladies, 

None shall be received in my house Nulle ne sera recue chez moi a raoins 
unless she deserves it. qu'elle ne le merite. 

538. Nul is never followed by an adjective, but may be used in 
relation to a noun or a pronoun ; it is then separated from them by the 
preposition of, de; as in, 

None of those who went into that cav- Nul de ceus qui sont entres dans cette 
era has ever returned. caverne n'en est revenu. 

539. Nul, as an adjective, takes the feminine, but is never used in 
the plural, except when relating to a noun expressed before ; it means 
then void, or of little or no value; as in, 

There is no truth in that picture. II n'y a nulle verite dans ce tableau. 

These men have no capacity. Ce sont des hommes nuls. 

These deeds are void. Ces actes sont nuls. 

The Academy authorizes the use of nul, adjective, as qualifying a 
noun used objectively ; as in, 

This man is so obstinate that he will Get homme est si entete qu'il ne se 
yield to no reason. rend a nulle raison. 

But it would be better to use aucun, and say : 

Cet homme est si entete qu'il ne se rend a aucune raison. 

540. Aucun, as a pronoun, takes either gender, but is not used in 

21* 



246 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



the plural ; it is always accompanied by a negation when, used in rela- 
tion either to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective, it is followed by the 
preposition de, of; as in, 

I have looked for your books, but I have J'ai cherche vos livres, mais je n'm ai 

trouve aucun. 
Ou sont vos plumes 1 II n'y en a 

aucune sur la table. 
Aucune de vous, mesdemoiselles, ne m'a 

encore donne ses exercises. 
Aucun de ces soldats ne mourra de sea 

blessures. 



not found any. 
Where are your pens 1 There are none 

on the table. 
None of you, young ladies, has yet 

given me her exercises. 
None of these soldiers will die of his 

wounds. 



541. Aucun, as an adjective, is of either gender and number ; it is 
used with a negation, except in sentences expressing either interroga- 
tion or doubt : as in, 



There is no way by which you can suc- 
ceed in this affair. 
I do not wish it in any way. 
I have paid no attention to your sister. 

Was ever a man more happy than 

you 1 
The best comparison, perhaps, that has 

ever been made, is that of Pope 

about the Alps, in his Essay on 

Criticism. 



Vous tt'avez aucun moyen de reussir 

dans cette affaire. 
Je ne le veux en aucune maniere. 
Je n'ai rendu aucuns soins a votre 

soeur. 
Aucun homme fut-il jamais plus heur- 

eux que vous 1 
La plus belle comparaison qu'il y ait, 

peut-etre, en aucune langue, est celle 

que Pope a tiree des Alpes, dans son 

Essai sur la Critique. 



542. Pas un, as a pronoun, is only used in familiar or proverbial 
expressions ; it takes either gender, but is never used in the plural. 
When employed in relation either to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjec- 
tive, which has not been already expressed, it is followed by the prep- 
osition de, of; it excludes more strongly than aucun, and is not always 
accompanied by a negation ; as in, 



Not one believes it, not one says it. 

He is as learned as any one. 

There is not one of these pictures that 

does not come from a great master. 
None of those cows belong to me. 



Pas un ne le croit,^as un ne le dit. 

II est aussi savant que pas un. 

II n'y a pas un de ces tableaux qui ne 

soit d'un grand maltre. 
II n'y a pas une de ces vaches qui m'ap- 

partienne. 



543. Pas un, as an adjective, takes either number and gender, but 
no plural ; it is expressed in relation to persons and things, and is 
always accompanied by a negation ; as in, 

At the ball last night, there was not a Au bal hier soir, il n'y avait pas une 
lady who wore diamonds. femme qui portat des diamants. 

There is not an officer in the army who II n'y &pas un officier dans toute l'armee 
is not ready to die for his country. qui ne soit pret a mourir pour sa 

patrie. 



PRONOUN. 247 



OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSION, OTHER. 

544. Autre, other, is either a pronoun or an adjective, and takes 
both number and gender ; it is applied to persons and things, and 
serves to distinguish them. 

It is a pronoun when not joined to a noun. 

Would another be more useful to vou 1 Un autre pourrait-il vous etre plus 

utile 1 

Nevertheless, in this case, it is more of an adjective than a pro- 
noun, because there is a noun understood, which is homrne, man. 

545. It is an adjective when joined to a noun, or preceded by the 
pronoun en, which takes the place of the noun, or when used in ellip- 
tical sentences ; as in, 

The ancients did not believe in another Les anciens ne croyaient pas qu'il y eut 

world. un autre monde. 

The temple of Solomon being destroyed, Le temple de Solomon ayant ete de- 
they built another by order of Cyrus. truit, on en rebatit un autre par les 

ordres de Cyrus. 
We cannot be happy in this world and Nous ne pouvont etre heureux dans ce 
the other. monde et dans V autre (monde.) (El- 

lipsis.) 

Autre is sometimes used to represent a person, but indefinitely . 
as in, 

I had rather you would learn it of any J'aime mieux que vous l'appreniez de 
other person than of me. tout autre que de moi, (Ellipsis.) 



OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, BOTH, EITHER. 

546. The indefinite expressions both and either are rendered in 
French by either of the indefinite pronouns Pun and Vautre, which 
take either number and gender, or by tous deux, which is used also in 
the feminine. 

L'un et Vautre is a pronoun when not joined to a noun ; as in the 
following, 

Both state the same fact. L'un et l'autre (or tous deux) rappor- 

tent le meme fait. 

I know them both. Je les connais l'un et l'autre, or tous 

deux. 

But it is an adjective when joined to a noun ; it is then only used in 
the singular ; as in, 

It is rare to use both hands equally II est rare qu'on puisse se servir egale- 
well. ment bien de Vune ft Vautre main. 



248 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

547. Here a difficulty is raised by grammarians ; must the verb 
which follows Vun et V autre be placed in the singular or plural ? 

The Academy thinks that we may indifferently use the singular or 
the plural after Vun et Vautre, and in the last edition of its Dictionary 
we find, 

-,.., . , C L'une et V autre est bonne. 

Either is good. J iw a , Wg sont ^^ 

Voltaire almost always employs the singular ; as in, 

Both will soon see their last hour. Uun et Vautre bientot voit son heure 

derniere. 
Either thing now would be too blama- iPun et Vautre aujourd'hui serait trop 
ble. condamnable. 

Many distinguished authors do the same ; but, notwithstanding 
these respectable authorities, we think the plural alone ought to be 
admitted, because each of the pronouns Vun Vautre, taking the place 
of a noun, ought to act upon the verb as the nouns would ; therefore, 
two nouns, employed as nominative, always commanding the plural, 
when they are united by the conjunction et, the singular cannot pos- 
sibly be used after Vun et Vautre. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSION, NEITHER. 

548. The indefinite expression neither is rendered by the indefinite 
pronoun ni Vun ni Vautre ; this pronoun is used in relation to persons 
and things ; it takes either number and gender ; when followed by a 
noun or pronoun to which it relates, the preposition de, of, is placed 
between them ; ni Vun ni Vautre is also used as an adjective ; as in, 

Neither of your brothers shall marry Ni Vun ni Vautre de vos freres n'epou- 

my sister. sera ma soeur. 

I know neither of your sisters. Je ne connais ni Vune ni Vautre de vos 

soeurs. 
Are you acquainted with these gentle- Connaissez-vous ces messieurs 1 Non, 
men 1 No, I know neither of them. je ne les connais ni les uns ni les au- 

tres. 

549. When neither is preceded by a preposition, this preposition is 
repeated before each of the pronouns Vun and Vautre; as in, 

Tears were shed on neither side. On ne repandait de larmes ni de Vun 

ni de Vautre cote. 
Have you written to your brothers 1 Avez-vous ecrit a vos freres 1 Non, 
No, I have written to neither. je n'ai ecrit ni a, Vun ni d Vautre. 

450. Whenever the indefinite pronoun ni Vun ni Vautre is used as 
the nominative of a verb, this verb should be used in the plural if the 



pronoun. 249 

action which it expresses could possibly be performed by the two 
nominatives represented by the pronouns Vun and V autre; as in, 

Either of your brothers solicit this Vos deux freres sollicitent cette place, 

office, but neither has talent enough mais ni I'un ni Vautre n'ont assez de 

to occupy it. talent pour la remplir. 

Either of your sons were in the battle Vos deux fils etaient a la bataille de 

of Waterloo, but neither of them was Waterlo, mais ni I'un ni l : 'autre n'ont 

wounded. ete blesses. 

In these two sentences, both brothers might have had talent enough 
to fill the office, and both sons might have been wounded ; the verbs, 
therefore, have been used in the plural. 

551. But if the action expressed by the verb could not possibly 
have been performed by the two nominatives represented by the pro- 
nouns Vun and V 'autre, that verb should be used in the singular ; 
as in, 

Neither of them is my father. Ni I'un ni I' autre n'est mon pe're. 

Neither of them will be elected mayor Ni I'un ni V autre ne sera ela maire de la 
of the city of Boston. ville de Boston. 

A man can have but one father ; the city of Boston has only one 
mayor ; therefore, the actions expressed by the verbs to be and to be 
elected could not possibly be performed by the two nominatives Vun 
and V autre, and these verbs should be used in the singular. 

Grammarians do not agree upon this rule ; but we give it as a guide 
to foreigners, who will always write correctly by conforming to it. 

552. Remark. The indefinite pronouns both, either, and neither, 
should not be mistaken for the conjunctions expressed by the same 
words. As conjunctions, they are not expressed in French. The 
conjunctions and or or, used between the words preceded by both or 
either, and nor repeated before those which come after neither, are 
sufficient to convey the meaning of the sentence ; as in, 

This young lady is either foolish or Cette jeune personne est folle ou m6- 

wicked. chante. 

This lesson is both difficult and te- Cette lecon est difficile et ennuyeuse. 

dious. 

This horse is neither handsome nor Ce cheval n'est ni beau ni bon. 

good. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SAME, SELF, AND THE ADVERB EVEN. 

553. The indefinite expression same is rendered by the indefinite 
pronoun meme. 

Merne, as a pronoun, relates to persons and things, and takes 
either number or gender. It denotes identity, that is to say, that the 



250 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

person or thing so spoken of is no other than that which has been 
spoken of already. Thus, speaking of a man, we say, 

The same has come to see me. Le meme est venu me voir. 

Speaking of an affair, 

I always work at the same. Je travaille toujours a la meme. 

554. When an adjective, meme may signify identity or similarity, 
and always precedes the noun which it qualifies. 

(Identity.) 

In Germany, the same churches some- En Allemagne, les mimes eglises ser- 
times serve for Catholics and Pro- vent quelquefois pour les Catholiquea 
testants. et les Protestants. 

(Similarity.) 

It is rare to find two persons of the II est rare de trouver deux personnes du 
same character. meme caractere. 

Meme is sometimes added to a noun to give more force to its signi- 
fication, and then signifies the word self, in English ; as in, 

Is it virtue itself. C'est la vertu meme. 

It is myself. C'est moi-meme. 

555. Meme, as a pronoun or an adjective, must not be mistaken for 
the adverb, which means even; in which case it should remain inva- 
riable ; as in, 

Stars, animals, and even plants, were Les astres, les animaux, les plantes 
among the Egyptian deities. meme, etaient au nombre des divini- 

tes Egyptiennes. 

The following verses of Racine have been criticised : 

Jusqu'ici la fortune et la victoire memes 

Cachaient mes cheveux blancs sous trente diademes, 

because it has been supposed that meme was used by him as an adjec- 
tive, qualifying the two nouns, fortune and victoire; if such was the 
case, Racine would not have failed to recall the idea of the two 
nouns, by adding the pronoun elle to meme; saying, 

La fortune et la victoire elles memes ; 

but raeme'here is an adverb, and used in the plural, because at the 
time when Racine was writing, usage still permitted to orthography 



PRONOUN. 251 

this adverb mimes or mime ; he was then right in choosing such a 
termination as would suit the rlryme of the next verse. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSION, SUCH. 

556. The indefinite expression such is rendered by the indefinite 
pronoun tel. Tel is masculine or feminine, and applies to persons 
and things. This pronoun is used to designate a person or thing in 
an indefinite manner ; as in, 

The storm will fall upon such a one who L'orage tombera sur tel qui ne s'y at- 
does not think of it. tend pas. 

It takes also the place of a proper name ; as in, 
Who told you that 1 Such a one. Qui vous a dit cela 1 Un tel. 

And, in fine, is used instead of such a person who, in some Galli- 
cisms ; as in, 

He who sows does not always reap. Tel qui seme ne moissone pas tou- 

jour s. 

Tel is used in this sentence for the pronoun celui. 

557. Tel, as an adjective, indicates a comparison between two per- 
sens or things, but without expressing what or whom they are com- 
pared to ; as in, 

Such a man as you is born to aspire to Un homme tel que vous est ne pour 

honor and glory. aspirer a la gloire et aux honneurs. 

The obstinacy of the rebels is such as L'obstination des rebelles est telle qu'on 

not to be easily conquered. ne peut facilement la vaincre. 

558. When such, in English, is placed at the beginning of a sen- 
tence, and used in a partitive sense, if it refers to a single object or 
individual, it must, in French, be preceded by un, une, and if to sev- 
eral, by the preposition de, when placed before the noun, and des, if 
placed after it ; as in. 

Such a man is not calculated to com- Un tel homme n'est pas fait pour com- 
mand respect. mander le respect. 

Such men are not calculated to be De tels hommes ne se font point aimer, 
loved. 

Such horses as yours cannot run very Des chevaux tels que les votres ne peu- 

fast. vent courir tres vite. 

559. But when used in the middle of a sentence, un, de or des, are 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

not used before tel, provided the noun following is not used in a par- 
titive sense ; as in, 

Give me such a pen as you please, and Donnez-moi telle plume que vous vou- 
I shall write better than you. drez, et j'ecrirai mieux que vous. 

Give me such horses as you please, Donnez-moi tels chevaux que vous vou- 
and I will break them. drez, et je les dompterai. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SEVERAL AND MANY. 

560. The indefinite expressions several and many are rendered by 
the indefinite pronoun or the adjective plusieurs; as a pronoun, plu- 
sieurs is of either gender, and always plural. When used in an abso- 
lute meaning, that is to say, without referring to any noun or pro- 
noun expressed afterwards, it only relates to persons ; as in, 

Many are deceived by attempting to Plusieurs sont trompes en essayant de 
deceive others. tromper les autres. 

This sentence, although correct, is wanting in elegance ; it would be 
better translated by : 

On est souvent trompe en essayant de tromper les autres. 

561. When plusieurs is used in relation either to a noun, a pro- 
noun, or an adjective, expressed afterwards, it is employed in rela- 
tion to persons and things, and is always followed by the preposition 
de; as in, 

Several or many of my friends will sail Plusieurs de mes amis partiront demain 

for Europe to-morrow. pour l'Europe. 

A great number of soldiers could not fol- Un grand nombre de soldats ne purent 

low the army, and many of them died suivre l'armee, at plusieurs d'entr'eux 

of cold and hunger. moururent de froid et de faim. 

(Enti-e is used after de, before a personal pronoun, for the sake of 
euphony. ) 

The want of fodder compelled us to Le manque de fourrage nous forca a 
abandon several of our horses on the abandonner plusieurs de nos chevaux 
road. sur la route. 

562. Plusieurs, as an adjective, relates to persons and things, and 
is never followed by of, de; as in, 

Many philosophers have been deceived Plusieurs philosophes se sont trompes 
upon the nature of the soul. sur la nature de l'ame. 



PRONOUN. 253 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, ALL, EVERY, EVERYTHING. 

563. The indefinite expressions every, everything, and all, are ren- 
dered by the indefinite pronoun tout. 

Tout, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular, and signifies 
everything ; as in, 

Everything in our heart ought to yield Tout doit dans notre coeur ceder a 

to justice. 1'equite. 

He laughs at everything. II rit de tout. 

564. This pronoun, used as the direct of object of a verb, is placed 
after it in simple tenses, and, in compound tenses, between the aux- 
iliary and past participle ; as in, 

He confesses all. II avoue tout. 

He has confessed everything. II a tout avoue. 

But when an indirect object, it is always placed after the verb, 
either in simple or compound tenses ; as in, 

He thinks of everything. II pense a tout. 

He has thought of everything. II a pense a tout. 

The same rule is observed in the infinitive mood. 

565. Tout, as an adjective, is employed in relation to persons and 
things ; it takes either number and gender, and has two different 
meanings ; it expresses either the generality or the whole extent of a 
thing ; or it means every. In the first acceptation, it requires the 
article before the noun which it qualifies , as in, 

We must all die. Tout le monde meurt. 

All the horses have been taken for the Tous les chevaux ont ete pris pour Par- 
army, mee. 

In the other meaning, the article is not used before the noun which 
immediately follows the adjective ; as in, 

Every man ought to sacrifice his life for Tout homme doit sacrifier sa vie pour 
his country. son pays. 

When used for every, tout is always placed in the singular. 

566. In the first signification, tout may accompany, not only the 
adjective possessive pronouns, but even the following : nous, vous, 
eux, ce, celvi, ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-ld, and le. 

22 



254 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

567. With the adjective pronouns, tout is always placed first; 
as in, 

AH my friends, all thy brothers, and all Tous mes amis, tous tes freres, et toute 
his family, were at my nuptials sa famille, etaient a mon manage. 

568. Tout always follows nous, vous, and eux; as in, 

All of us, all of you, all of them. Nous tous, vous tous, eux tous. 

569. Tout precedes the demonstrative pronoun ce celui, ceci, cela, 
celui-ci, and celui-lil; as in, 

All that I say is true. Tout ce que je dis est vrai. 

All those who were at the party were Tous ceux qui etaient au bal etaient 

my friends. mes amis. 

I do not like all this, nor all that. Je n'aime ni tout ceci, ni tout cela. 

Look at those books, and give me all Regardez ces livres, et donnez-moi tous 

these and all those. ceux-ci et tous ceux-ld. 

570. With le, la, and les, as objective pronouns, tout follows the 
verb which governs them, in simple tenses, and, in compound ones, is 
placed between the auxiliary and past participle, as follows, 

I like them all. Je les trouve tous bons. 

I have experienced them all. Je les ai tous eprouves. 

571. Tout is sometimes used adverbially ; its signification then is 
merely expletive, and it takes neither gender or number ; as in, 

He speaks aloud. U parle tout haut. 

He told her coldly that he did not love II lui dit tout froidemeut qu'il ne l'ai- 
her. mait pas. 

572. Sometimes tout signifies although very, quoique-tres ; entirely, 
entierement ; or, however, quelque. Then it is subject to some par- 
ticular rules. 

573. Rule I. Tout, employed for any of the three above words, 
remains unchanged before a masculine adjective ; as in, 

Horses of that color are generally very Les chevaux de ce poil sont generale- 

good or very bad. ment tout bons ou tout mauvais. 

Children, however amiable they may Les enfants, tout aimables qu'ils sont, 

be, have always a great many faults. ne laissent pas d'avoir bien des de- 

fauts. 

Although much frightened, they made Tout effrayes qu'ils etaient, ils se de- 

a good defence. fendirent bien. 

574. Rule II. Tout, employed instead of the same three words 



PRONOUN. 



255 



and placed before a feminine adjective beginning with a vowel or an 
h mute, takes neither gender nor number ; as in, 

These fruits are entirely different from Ces fruits la sont tout aatres que lea 

tlie others. premiers. 

Virtue, however strict it may be, is a La vertu, tout austere qu'elle est, fait 

source of true pleasure. gotiter de vrais plaisirs. 

These engravings, although very inter- Ces gravures,£o«£ interessantes qu'elles 

esting, do not always please. sont, ne laissent pas d'ennuyer a la 

longue. 

575. But tout takes both number and gender before a feminine 
adjective beginning with a consonant or an h aspirated ; as in, 

They were much surprised to see us. Elles furent toutes surprises de nous voir. 

This is an empty head. C'est tine tete toute vide. 

Although very wise and learned, their Toutes sages et toutes savantes qu'elles 

company is very irksome. sont, leur societe est tres ennuyeuse. 

These young ladies, however pretty Ces demoiselles, toutes jolies qu'elles 

they may be, are not pleasing at all. sont, ne sont nullement aimables. 

576. Rule HE. Tout, used for one of the three above words, 
changes neither gender nor number before a feminine adjective begin- 
ning with a consonant, when the adjective is immediately preceded by 
an adverb ; it also remains unchanged before an adverb ; as in, 

These young ladies are as pretty as Ces demoiselles sont tout aussi jolies 

you. que vous. 

She is just like you. Elle est tout comme vous. 

This river flows softly. Cette riviere coule tout doucement. 



OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN ALWAYS FOLLOWED BY QUE. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS WHOEVER, WHOSOEVER, WHOMEVER, ETC. 

577. The indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, whomever, and 
whomsoever, when used in an absolute meaning, that is to say, with- 
out referring to any noun, are rendered by qui que, or qui que ce soit. 
These two expressions are always in the singular number, and only 
employed in relation to persons. 

They are used with or without a negation. 

573. Without a negation, they mean, as we have said, whoever, 
whatever person it may be, and govern the next verb in the subjunctive 
mood ; as in, 



Whoever may call, say that I am en- Qui que ce soit qui vienne, dites que j© 
gageo". euis occupe. 



256 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Whomever we speak to, we must be A qui que ce soil que nous parlions, 
polite. nous devons etre polis. 

Whoever you may be, I do not wish to Qui que vous soyez, je ne desire pas 
associate with you. me Her avec vous. 

From these examples it results, that when qui que ce soit is a nom- 
inative, it is followed by the relative qui, and when objective by que; 
thus, when nominative, the words que ce soit must follow the first qui, 
to avoid the immediate repetition of the same word qui ; but, when 
objective, these words, que ce soit, may be omitted, as may be seen in 
the last example. 

579. Accompanied by a negation, qui que ce soit signifies personne, 
anybody or nobody, according to the construction of the English sen- 
tence, and the verb following is then used in the indicative mood ; as 
in 5 



We ought never to slander anybody. On ne doit jamais mal parler de qui que 

ce soit. 
Nobody has prejudiced me against you. Qui que ce soit ne m'a prevenu contre 



580. When whoever is used in relation to a noun, it is then ex- 
pressed by quel que, in two words, "and quel agrees with that noun in 
number and gender ; as in, 

Criminals ought to be punished, 'who- Les criminels doivent £tre punis, quels 
ever they may be. quHls puissent etre. 

In this sentence, the expression however relates to the noun crimi- 
nals, which, being masculine plural, requires the word quel to be of 
that number and gender. 

OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, WHATEVER, WHATSOEVER, ETC. 

581. Whenever the indefinite expression whatever is used in an 
absolute meaning, it is rendered by quoi que or quoi que ce soit. These 
two expressions are always used objectively, and only employed in 
relation to things. When preceding the verb of which they are the 
object, either may be used ; but when the verb comes first, it can only 
be followed by quoi que ce soit. 

According to the construction of the English sentence, they are 
used with or without a negation. 

582. Without a negation, they mean whatever it may be, and govern 
the next verb in the subjunctive mood ; as in, 

Whatever he is doing, he leaves it at Quoi que ce soit qu'ilfasse, il quitte sur 
once when his duty calls him out. le champ, quand son devoir l'appelle. 



PRONOUN. 257 

Whatever he may do, he will never Quoi qu'il fasse, il ne reussira jamais, 
succeed. 

583. With a negation, they signify ant/thing or nothing, rien, and 
are followed by the indicative ; as in, 

Without proper care we cannot sue- Sans une application convenable nous 
ceed in anything. ne pouvons reussir en quoi que ce 

soit. 

Remark. Although quoi que has the same signification as quoi que 
ce soit que, its similarity with quoique, although, both in meaning and 
writing, requires, for the sake of clearness, that it should be rendered 
by quelque chose que, which conveys the same meaning and destroys 
the ambiguity ; thus, in the above example, it would have been better 
to write : 

Quelque chose qu'il fasse, &c. 

584. When whatever is used in relation to a noun, it is expressed 
by quelque, provided that noun, preceded or not by an adjective, 
should follow it immediately, and by quel que, in two words, if the 
verb should be placed between whatever and the noun. In the first 
instance, the indefinite pronoun quelque agrees in number and gender 
with the noun following ; in the latter, it is the word quel which 
agrees with that noun, and que remains invariable ; as in, 

(Quelques richesses que vous possediez, 
vous ne serez jamais heureux. 
Quelles que soient les richesses que vous 
possediez, vous ne serez jamais heu- 
reux. 
Whatever may De the great deeds Quelques belles actions qu'il fasse, il 
which he accomplishes, he will never n'en sera jamais recompense 
be rewarded for them. 



OF THE EXPRESSION HOWEVER, USED BEFORE AN ADJECTIVE, A PAST PARTI- 
CIPLE, OR A Q.UALIFICATIVE ADVERB. 

585. Whenever the indefinite expression however is joined to an 
adjective not immediately followed by a noun, an adverb implying 
qualification, or a past participle, it is rendered by quelque, which then 
acting as an adverb, remains invariable, and the verb following is used 
in the subjunctive mood ; as in, 

However powerful they may be, they Quelque puissants quails soient, ils ne 

are neither loved nor respected. sont ni aimes ni respectes. 

However respected you may be, they Quelque respectis que vous soyez, on ne 

will not obey you. vous obeira pas. 

22* 



258 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

However skilfully they attempt to do Quelque adroitement qu'ils s'y pren- 
this, they will not succeed. nent, ils ne reussiront pas. 

586. It results from what precedes, that, whenever the word quelque 
is used before a verb, it is spelled in two words, quel and que, and the 
first part, quel, agrees with the noun which follows the verb. 

587. When used immediately before a noun preceded or not by an 
adjective, quelque is spelled in one word ; it acts as an adjective, and 
agrees as such with the noun which follows it. 

588. When placed before an adjective, or a past participle not fol- 
lowed by a noun, or a qualificative adverb, quelque is still spelled in 
one word, acts as an adverb, and remains invariable. 

Foreigners should bear in mind the preceding remarks, which will 
assist them in using this word correctly. 

OF THE EXPRESSION ALTHOUGH VERY, USED BEFORE AN ADJECTIVE, A PAST 
PARTICIPLE, OR AN ADVERB OF QUALIFICATION. 

589. We have, when speaking of the indefinite pronoun tout, 
explained how this word should be used when corresponding to the 
English expression although very; it remains for us to point out the 
difference in meaning existing between tout, although very, and 
quelque, however, so as to justify the use of the indicative mood with 
the former, and that of the subjunctive with the latter. 

When we say, 

Although very pretty, you do not please everybody, 

we admit as a fact that the person spoken of is very pretty. No doubt 
or uncertainty exists in the mind of the person who speaks in refer- 
ence to the beauty of the person spoken of; the indicative shows that 
state of positiveness, and we say, 

Toute jolie que vous etes, vous ne plaisez pas a tout le monde. 

But in the sentence following : 

However pretty you may be, you do not please everybody, 

the degree of beauty is not ascertained ; there is a doubt in the mind 
in reference to how pretty the lady is, and this state of doubt requires 
the use of the subjunctive mood ; thus we say, 

Quelque jolie que vous soyez, vous ne plaisez pas a tout le monde. 



PRONOUN. 259 



OF THE EXPRESSION, SUCH AS. 

590. The expression such as is rendered by tel que, which is em- 
ployed in making comparisons ; as in, 

We fear to see ourselves such as we On craint de se voir tel qu'on est, par- 
are, because we are not such as we cequ'on est pas tel g«'on devrait 
ought to be. etre. 

This expression governs the indicative mood. 

It would be a fault to use quel que instead of tel que. 



QUESTIONS. 



536. How are the indefinite expressions no, not one, none, no man, no 
ivoman, nobody, &c, rendered 1 

537. Does the word nul exclude more strongly than aucun and pas un ? Is 
it always accompanied by a negation *? Does it take either gender 1 and is it 
used in the plural as a pronoun 1 

538. Is the pronoun nul ever used in relation to an adjective 1 When used 
in reference to a noun or pronoun, is it not separated from either by a preposi- 
tion, and which is it 1 

539. In what case does nul, used as an adjective, take the plural 1 What 
is its meaning when used in the plural 1 

540. Does the word aucun, used as a pronoun, take either gender and num- 
ber 1 Is it accompanied by a negation 1 When employed in relation to a noun, 
a pronoun, or an adjective, what preposition does it take before them 1 

541. Does the adjective aucun take either number and gender'? Is it 
always accompanied by a negation 1 In what cases is the negation dispensed 
with % 

542. In what kind of expressions is pas un used as a pronoun 1 Does it take 
either number and gender 1 

542. When employed in relation to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective, is it 
not separated from them by a preposition, and which is it 1 Does it exclude 
more strongly than aucun ? 

543. When pas un is used as an adjective, does it take either number and 
genrler 1 Is it employed in relation to persons and things, and is it accompanied 
by a negation 1 

544. Does the word autre, used either as a pronoun or an adjective, take both 
number and gender 1 Is it applied to persons and things 1 

545. In what case is the word autre used as an adjective 1 

546. How are the indefinite expressions either and both rendered in French 1 
Does the pronoun Vun et I'autre take either number and gender 1 and how is it 
in regard to tous deux? 

546. In what cases is the pronoun Vun et V autre either a pronoun or an adjec- 
tive 1 

547. In what number does the pronoun Vun et Vautre govern the verb fol- 
lowing *? 

548. How is the indefinite expression neither rendered 1 Is the pronoun ni 
Vun ni Vautre used in relation to persons and things 1 Does it take either num- 
ber and gender % When followed by a noun or a pronoun to which it relates, ia 
it not separated from either by a preposition, and which is it 1 Is it also used 
as an adjective 1 



260 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

549. When ni Vun ni V autre is governed by a preposition, bow is that prepo- 
sition used 1 

550, 551. When m Vun ni V autre is employed as the nominative of a verb, in 
what case is that verb used in the singular, and when is it used in the plural 1 

552. How are both, either, and neither, expressed, when used as conjunctions 1 

553. How are the indefinite expressions some, self, and the adverb even, ren- 
dered in French 1 

553. Does meme, as a pronoun, take either number and gender, and does it 
relate to persons and tilings 1 

554. What is the meaning of the word meme, used as an adjective 1 Does it 
precede or follow the noun which it qualifies % 

554. When meme is used instead of the word self, how does it modify the 
signification of the noun which it follows 1 

555. In what signification is meme an adverb 1 Is meme invariable when 
used as an adverb 1 

556. How is such expressed in French 1 Does the word tel, used as a pro- 
noun, take either number and gender 1 Does it apply to persons and things 1 

556. Does not tel sometimes take the place of a proper noun % By what word 
should it then be preceded % 

556. Is not the pronoun tel sometimes used instead of the demonstrative pro- 
noun celui? In what kind of sentences 1 

557. What does the word tel indicate, when used as an adjective 1 

558. When such is used in English at the beginning of a sentence, and relates 
to a singular noun, by what should the pronoun tel be preceded in French 1 
What should be done if such should relate to a plural noun 1 

559. But when tel is used in the middle of a sentence before a noun which is 
not employed in a partitive sense s what should be done 1 

560. How are the indefinite expressions several and many rendered in 
French 1 

560. Is not the word plusieurs sometimes an adjective and sometimes a pro- 
noun % As a pronoun, is plusieurs of either number and gender 1 

560. When plusieurs is used as a pronoun, in an absolute meaning, does it 
relate to persons and things 1 

561. When the pronoun plusieurs is used in relation either to a noun, an ad- 
jective, or a pronoun which it precedes, is it not separated from them by a prepo- 
sition 1 and which is it 1 

562. Does plusieurs , used as an adjective, relate to persons and things, and is 
it ever followed by the preposition de? 

563. How are the indefinite expressions every, everything, and all, expressed 
in French 1 

563. Of what number and gender is the word tout, used as a pronoun *? 

564. What is the place of the pronoun tout, used as the direct object of a 
verb in simple and compound tenses 1 

564. Where is it placed when the indirect object of a verb % 

565. When lout, used an adjective, signifies either the whole extent nr iTir 
generality of a thing, is it followed by the article or not! Is it used in eidier 
number and gender 1 

565. When tout means every, is it also followed by the article, and does it 
take either number and gender 1 

566. When tout is used in the meaning of all, by what pronouns can it be 
accompanied 1 

567. What is the place of tout, when used with an adjective possessive pro- 
noun 1 

568. What is the place of tout with nous, vous, and eux? 

569. What is the place of tout with the demonstrative pronouns 1 

570. What is the place of tout, when relating to the objective pronouns le, 
la, or les, in simple and compound tenses 1 

571. When the meaning of tout, used adverbially, is merely expletive, does 
it take either the feminine or the plural 1 



PRONOUN. 26 i 

572, 573. When tout used in the sense of although very, entirely, however, ia 
placed before a masculine adjective, does it change its termination on account of 
the number of that adjective ? 

574. When tout, used in the same meaning as above, is placed before a fem 
inine adjective beginning with a vowel or an h mute, does it take the number 
and gender of diat adjective 1 

575. When tout, still used in the same meaning, comes before a feminine 
adjective beginning widi a consonant or an h aspirated, does it agree with that 
adjective 1 

576. If tout should be placed before a feminine adjective beginning with a 
consonant or h aspirated, preceded itself immediately "by an adverb, should it 
agree with that adjective 1 

576. Does tout change before an adverb which is not followed by an adjec- 
tive ? 

577. How are the indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, whomever, &c, 
rendered in French, when used in an absolute meaning 1 In what number are 
the two expressions qui que and qui que ce soit used 1 Do they relate to persons 
and things ! 

573. When used without a negation, what is the meaning of qui que and qui 
que ce soit? and in what mood do they govern the verb following 1 

579. When used with a negation, what is the meaning of qui que ce soit? and 
in what mood is the verb following used 1 

580. How is whoever expressed, when used in relation to a noun 1 With 
what does the pronoun quel agree 1 

551. When the expression whatever is used in an absolute sense, how is it 
rendered in French % 

581. Are the expressions quoi que and quoi que ce soit ever used as nomina- 
tivps, and do they relate to persons or things 1 

581. When whatever is used after the verb, can it be expressed by quoi que ? 

552. When used without a negation, what is the meaning of the expressions 
quoi que and qicoi que ce soit ? In what mood do they govern the next verb 1 

583. What is the meaning of the above expressions, when used with a nega- 
tion ? By what mood are they then followed 1 

583. When quoi que, on account of its similarity in pronunciation with the 
conjunction qvoique, in one word, and meaning although, would create an ambi- 
guity in the meaning of the sentence, by which expression should quoi que be 
replaced 1 

584. When whatever is used in relation to a noun, how is it expressed when 
that noun follows it immediately 1 

584. How should the same word be rendered if it was separated by a verb 
from the noun to which it relates 1 

585. When however is used before an adjective not immediately followed by 
a noun, how is it expressed 1 Is the word quelque, in this case, an adjective or 
an adverb 1 

5S6. When the word quelque is used before a verb, is it spelled in one or two 
words 1 What part of that word does agree, and with what does it agree 1 

587. When the word quelque is used immediately before a noun preceded or 
not by an adjective, how is it spelled, in one or two words 1 and with what does 
it agree 1 

588. When the word quelque is placed before an adjective or past participle 
not immediately followed by a noun, how is it spelled, and what part of speech 
is it then 1 

589. Why does tout, although very, govern the indicative mood, whilst quelque, 
however, requires to be followed by the subjunctive mood 1 

590. How is the expression such as, rendered in French, and what mood 
does it govern % 



262 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE VERB. 



591. " The verb is a part of speech which expresses either an 
action performed or felt by the nominative or subject, or simply the 
situation or the quality of the subject, and which is conjugated with 
the assistance of persons, numbers, tenses, and moods." 

592. In French, as well as in English, it is always easy to recog- 
nise a verb from another part of speech by the temporary addition 
of the personal nominative pronouns je, tu, il, &c. ; in this sentence, 
for instance : 

A judgment according to law, Un jugement conforme aux lois, 

the word conforme is an adjective, because it qualifies jugement, and 
does not permit any of the pronouns^, tu, il, &c, to be placed before 
it ; but in the following : 

An honest man always suits his conduct L'honnete homme conforme toujours sa 
to his duty and the laws of his coun- conduite a ses devoirs et aux lois de 
try, son pays, 

the word conforme is a verb, because with the pronouns je, tu, il, 
&c, it presents to the mind an idea able to satisfy it. 

Each verb expresses the idea of existence, real or intellectual, and 
that of a determinate modification attached to existence ; and as our 
mind may attribute this combination either to a single object or to 
several, to the person who speaks, to that who is spoken to, or who 
is spoken of, the verbs must have modifications in order to express 
these different views of the mind ; thus the following sentences : 

I am ploughing, thou art, he or she is, Je laboure, tu laboures, il ou elle la- 
we are, you are, they are ploughing, boure, nous labourons, vous labourez, 

ils ou elles labourent, 

express all the existence attached to the idea of ploughing, but the 
first, je laboure, shows that the idea of existence, thus modified, refers 
to a single person, and that this person is myself; the second, tu la- 
boures, means that the same idea, with the same modification, is 
addressed to the person spoken to, &c. 

Since the only verb to be, etre, being modified according to the 
wants of the mind, expresses sufficiently all its ideas, why is it, then, 
that we have invented so many words which contain in themselves 
fche verb and its modifications'? Let us attempt, as an answer to 



VERB. 



263 



this question, to construct a sentence without the help of these 
compound words, and see how our ear and taste would be pleased ; 
as in. 



Ambition is a passion which raises 
man or degrades him, makes him a 
hero or exposes him lo the greatest 
crimes. 



'L'ambition est une passion qui eleve 
Phomme ou le degrade, qui en fait un 
heros ou le rend capable des plus 
grands crimes. 
L'ambition est une passion qui est (le- 
vant Phomme, ou est le degradant, 
qui est faisant de lui un heros ou est 
le rcndant capable des plus grands 
crimes. 



Without any further remarks, it is evident, that if the first sentence 
is elegant and pleases the ear, the other is shocking by the repetition 
of the same sound, ant, and the dulness which reigns in the arrange- 
ment of the words. 



OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS IN THE VERBS. 

593. The verb, having to express the modified existence of its 
subject, should receive alterations corresponding to the different situ- 
tions in which the subject is to be found. 

594. We then distinguish in a verb, the numbers, that is to say, 
the singular, when the action expressed by the verb is performed by 
a single person ; as, 



This child is reading. 



Cet enfant lit. 



And the plural, when that action is performed by several persons ; 
as in, 



These children are reading, 



Ces enfants lisent. 



595. By the word personne, applied to verbs, we understand the 
modifications which it receives as referring to one who speaks, one 
who is spoken to, or is spoken of; this modification is felt both by 
the nominative or subject of the verb, and the verb itself. The 
subject is either a noun or a pronoun. When a pronoun, this pro- 
noun, by its alterations, indicates the person of the verb, and the 
verb, by its termination, shows under the control of what pronoun it 
is. The subject, when a noun, always governs the third person. 

We say of a verb that it is in the first person, when the action ex- 



264 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

pressed by the verb is performed by the person who speaks ; as, I 
sing, je chante ; we sing, nous chantons. 

The verb is in the second person, when it is the person spoken to 
who performs the action ; as in, 

Thou singest, tu chantesj you sing, vous chantez. 

The verb is in the third person, when it is the person spoken of 
who performs the action ; as in, 

He or she sings, il on elle chante; they sing. Us ou elles chantent. 

596. In French, as well as in English, although we speak only to 
one person, politeness requires that we should employ the second 
person plural instead of that of the singular ; thus we say, 

Sir, you write very well. Monsieur, vous icrivez (and not tu 

ecris) fort bien. 

In passive and neuter verbs, conjugated with to be, of which we 
shall soon speak, when vous is used instead of tu, the verb to be takes 
the plural, but not the word which modifies that verb ; thus we say, 

Madam, you are loved, Madame, vous etes aimee, (and not 

aimees,) 

although vous and etes are in the plural. 

The same remark applies to the case when nous, we, is used 
instead of I, je, as is the custom of writers when speaking of them- 
selves ; as in, 

We are satisfied that a language cannot Nous sommes convaincu qu'on ne peut 
be learned without a complete knowl- savoir un langue sans en connaitre 
edge of the grammar. parfaitement la grammaire. 

Convaincu is in the singular, although referring to the plural pro- 
noun nous, because, in fact, that pronoun relates only to one indi- 
vidual, and stands in the sentence for the singular pronoun I, je. 



OF THE TExNSES OF THE VERB. 



597. We have said that a verb expresses an action or a situation. 
But this action or situation may have taken place in the past, or may 
be taking place at the time we speak, or may take place in the 
future. 



VERB. 265 

There are, then, new accessory ideas to be added to those of num- 
ber and persons, and to that of the principal idea expressed generally 
by the verb. 

Since, as we have seen, the termination changes in the verb, to 
express, by this material alteration, the modification of the subject, in 
regard to persons and number, it ought to change, also, to characterize 
these new accessory ideas relating to different periods of time ; thus, 

I did plough yesterday, Je labourai hier, 

expresses an action which is past at the time I speak. 

I am ploughing now, Je laboure maintenant, 

expresses an action which takes place at the time I speak. 

I shall be ploughing to-morrow, Je labouverai demain, 

expresses an idea in the future, which has not been accomplished yet, 
but shall be. 

These three expressions, je labourai, je laboure, and je labourerai, 
which all belong to the same primitive idea of ploughing, and stand 
modified in the same manner in regard to the accessory idea of num- 
ber and persons, being ail in the first person singular, have received 
different terminations to express, besides, the new modifications of 
times ; and it is by the difference in these terminations, that one 
expresses the present, another the past, and the last the future. 

598. These different forms are called tenses, in the verbs, because 
they express the relations existing between the action represented by 
the verb, and the different periods during which this action might 
have taken place. 

Each verb has, then, three distinct forms. 

One to express an action in the present ; 

One to express an action in the past ; 

One to express an action in the future. 

We shall follow this order, in the examination of tenses, so as not 
to differ with the general arrangements of most grammarians, 
although it would be more rational to begin with the past. 

OF THE PRESENT. 

599. There is, and there can be, but one way to conceive the idea 
of the present. As soon as a fact has taken place, it belongs entirely 
to the past, and if it has not yet taken place, it belongs to the future ■ 

23 



266 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

a fact cannot, then, be more or less present, and for this reason we 
have but one way to express it ; as in, 

I am ploughing, I am suffering. Je laboure, je souffre. 

600. The actuality of an action, or situation, does not consist in its 
being instantaneous, as taking place in a time which is metaphysically 
indivisible ; it depends upon what is taken as a unity of time ; thus, 
we say, very properly, 

I study the grammar, J' etudie la grammaire, 

although w r e do not pretend to express, that the study of the gram- 
mar takes place at the moment the person speaks, but that the study 
of the grammar is his habitual occupation, and will remain such until 
he has learned it. 

601. The measure of time which constitutes the present is, then, 
relative to what is spoken of, and may be of a longer or shorter dura- 
tion. 

When we say, 

He sows some wheat this year, and the II seme du ble cette annee, et l'annee 
next he will sow some oats, prochaine il semera de l'avoine, 

we do not pretend to express that he is sowing wheat during the 
whole year, but he has sown wheat when he had to do it. 

602. We also employ the present to express the habitual action or 
situation of the subject ; as in, 

He loves music, he fights like a lion, he II aime la musique, il se bat comme un 
feels the misfortunes of his country. lion, il souffre des malheurs de sa 

patrie. 

Which does not signify, that he loves music, or fights, or feels, at the 
moment spoken of; but that his habitual and natural dispositions are 
such as is expressed by the verbs. 

603. The present is, sometimes, expressed under the form of the 
imperfect ; as when we say to a person we meet in the street, 

I was going to see you. J'allais vous voir. 

Or to some one who enters the room, 

I was thinking of you at this moment. Je m'occupais de vous dans ce mo- 
ment. 

This form of the present is owing to the circumstances of the fact j 



VERB. 267 

for when I say, fallais chez vous, I express that I was in the act of 
going when I met yon ; the action of going to your house is, then, in 
part, past at the time I speak, and simultaneous with our encounter, 
and it is only because this encounter is itself present that fallals ex- 
presses the present on this occasion. The same mode of reasoning is 
applicable to all phrases of similar construction. 

604. Sometimes, also, we use the present, in speaking of facts 
utterly past, but it is then because we bring our mind back to the 
time when the fact took place, as if we were present at the action ; it 
is a figure allowed by the laws of the language, which often gives to 
the style more rapidity, elegance, and animation ; as in, 

He takes a hatchet, cuts down the II prend une hache, il coupe le mat, qui 

mast, which was already broken, etait deja brise, le jette a la mer, il 

throws it into the sea, calls me by m'appelle par mon nom, et m'erc- 

name, and encourages me to follow courage a le suivre. 
him. 

The meaning of this sentence is not that the person spoken of is 
performing now the several acts which it relates ; but the form of the 
present strikes the imagination, and renders the idea more impressive. 

605. Whenever if, meaning suppose that, is used in English before 
a verb in the future tense, it should be remarked whether that verb 
expresses the idea of a will, or that of a contingency. In the first 
instance, the English expression will is rendered by the present tense 
of the verb vouloir, to be ivilling, and the verb following is used in the 
infinitive mood ; in the latter, will is suppressed, and the verb follow- 
ing is employed in the present tense ; as in, 

If you will (are willing to) do this for Si vous voulez faire cela pour moi, je 
ine, I will do that for you. ferai cela pour vous. 

I will go and see you next week, if you J'irai vous voir la semaine prochaine, 
will promise me to return with me. si vous me promcttez de revenir avec 

moi. 

606. The present tense is very often used in English instead of the 
future ; this is also sometimes the case in French, as will be seen 
when speaking of the future tense ; but foreigners not being able to 
discriminate when this privilege should be used with propriety, they 
should always examine whether the English verb expresses a situa- 
tion or a fact implying either an idea of actuality or futurity, and use 
the verb in French according to the result of that examination ; as in, 

The next time you come, I will pay La premiere fois que vous vicndrez, je 

you what I owe you. vous paierai ce que je vous dois. 

I will love you as long as I live. Je vous aimerai tant que je vivrai. 



268 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It is evident, in these two sentences, that the verbs to come and to 
live, although in the present tense in English, do not express an idea 
of actuality, and they are accordingly used in the future in French. 

607. The present tense is also invariably used in French, whatever 
may be the tense employed in English, when the verb expresses a 
fact which is true at all times ; as in, 

The Pagans did not believe that there Les Payens ne croyaient pas quVZ y a 

was a God. un Dieu. 

What charmed me the most during my Ce que j'ai trouve de plus agreable pen- 
journey through Italy, was the beauty dant mon voyage en Italie, c'eat la 
of the climate. beaute du climat. 

It has always been, it is, and it will always be true, that there is a 
God, and the climate of Italy is beautiful ; the present should then be 
used in French instead of the imperfect in English. 

608. It should be remarked, that, whilst the English have three dif- 
ferent forms to express a fact in the present, the French have but 
one ; therefore, the expressions I plough, I do plough, and I am 
ploughing, are all rendered by the literal translation of the first, I 
plough, je labour e. This remark is very important to foreigners, who 
are very apt to translate the word do by the veibfaire, to do, and I am 
ploughing by the verb to be followed by the present participle, which 
is never the case in French. 



OF THE IMPERFECT. 

609. One of the greatest difficulties of the French language, for 
English scholars, consists in distinguishing the difference existing 
between this tense and the preterite definite ; a difference which does 
not exist in their language, or which, at least, there is no particular 
manner of representing by words ; therefore, we shall enter into such 
details as are necessary in order to leave no doubt as to the proper use 
of these two tenses. 

The imperfect is used to express a past action in several different 
points of view, which we shall examine separately. 

610. When I say, 

I was ploughing when your father Je labourais quand votre pere arriva, 
came, 

the act of ploughing is, in reality, past at the time when I speak, but 
it was present at the time when the father came ; it was simultaneous 
with this last fact. By this tense, then, we express a past in regard to 



VERB. 269 

the time when we speak, and a present in regard to the time we 
speak of, and, for this reason, of a mixture of the present with the 
past, this form of the verb has' been called imperfect. Therefore, 
we shall lay down this first rule : 

1st. The imperfecjt is used to express an action which was taking 
place at the same time that another action took place. 

611. When we say, 

During your absence, I went (I used to Pendant votre absence, j'allais a la 

go) to the post-office every day, poste tous les jours, 

When I was in Washington, I went (I Quand yitais a Washington, j'allais 

used to go) to Congress every day, au Congres tous les jours, 

in the first of these two sentences, the verb expresses an action often 
repeated, a habit of life ; in the second, the verb fetais expresses a 
situation of some duration, and fallals a habit. In both cases, the 
imperfect should be used to convey to the mind the idea of the 
speaker ; thus we lay down as a rule, 

2d. "When we wish to express an action in the past as being 
habitually done, or which implies an idea of situation or duration, the 
imperfect should be used to convey these ideas. 

612. When we say, 

Napoleon was a great man, but he was Napoleon etait un grand homme, mais 
too much addicted to war, il aimait trop la guerre, 

we express in this sentence neither a fact having taken place at the 
same time with another, nor a habit or situation, but a qualification, a 
disposition of the mind, of the soul, and the imperfect is still used in 
cases of the kind ; hence the following rule : 

3d. When we wish to express a situation of the mind, or natural 
feeelings and dispositions, in a time which is passed, the imperfect 
Bhould be used. 

613. When we say, 

My father was a hundred years old Mon pere avail cent ans quand il mou- 
when he died, rut, 

we express a fact which seems at once definite, but which, in reality, 
does not signify that my father had only lived ninety-nine years, and 
three hundred and sixty-five days, but that, after having reached his 
hundredth year, he still continued to live, but did not reach his hun- 
dredth and first year. This sentence expresses, then, the situation 
of my father in reference to his age, which situation lasted from the 
day when he was one hundred years old to the moment when he 
23* 



270 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

died ; this situation, implying an idea of duration, should still be 
expressed by the imperfect tense ; hence the following rule : 

4th. When speaking of the age of a person who is no more, the 
imperfect tense should be used to express what the age of the person 
was. 

614. When we say, My father ivas born in England, using the 
imperfect tense of the verb to be born, in English, if the person 
spoken of is still living, the compound of the present and the past 
participle, that is to say, the preterite indefinite, should be used in 
French ; and if that person is no more, the pluperfect is required by 
the genius of the French language, as we will explain when we 
speak of these two tenses ; as in, 

Mon pere est ne en Angleterre, (the father is still living.) 
Mon pere etait ne en Angleterre, (the father is no more.) 

615. 5th. When, in English, the signs of the conditional, would, 
should, might, ought, are employed with a verb, and preceded by if, 
si, signifying suppose that, the imperfect is used in French, instead of 
the conditional ; as in, 

If you would come to-morrow, I would Si vous veniez demain, je vous pai- 

pay you. erais. 

If I should go into the country to- Si j 'allais a la campagne demain, j'au- 

morrow, I should want your ser- rais besoin de vos services. 

vices. 

616. 6th. The imperfect may be used when we speak of an event, 
the effect of which was continued, although it occurred in a time defin- 
itely past, as yesterday ; as in, 

When did you lose your purse 1 I lost Quand avez-vous perdu votre bourse 1 
it this morning ; I had it last night. Je l'ai perdue ce matin; je I'avais 

hier au soir. 

The action expressed by the verb avoir, although past definitely, 
yesterday, implies duration, since the fact of having the purse yes- 
terday was continued until this morning, when I lost it ; consequently, 
it requires the imperfect. 

617. The imperfect, in French, is only expresssed in one way, as, 
je labour ais, which corresponds to the English expressions, I 
ploughed, I did plough, and I was ploughing, when employed in such 
case as to require the use of that tense. 



PRONOUN. 271 

OF THE PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

618. The preterite definite is the perfect of the Latin ; it is used in 
speaking of an action or a fact which took place at a time entirely 
past, of which nothing remains, which is specified in the sentence, or 
clearly understood, and may always be discovered by the thread of 
events in the relation. 

The time, to be entirely and definitely past, so as to require the 
preterite definite, must be such as to show clearly that what has been 
taken as the unit of time is completely elapsed. 

619. What is called the unit of time is either the period during 
which the fact expressed by the verb took place, or the length of time 
necessary for that fact to be accomplished. It should be remarked, 
besides, that the shortest period of time which, being accomplished, 
requires the use of the preterite definite, is twenty-four hours ; there- 
fore, if we speak of a fact which took place to-day, this week, this 
month, this year, this age, &c, the words day, week, month, year, 
being used in the sentence to mention the period of time during which 
the fact expressed by the verb took place, the preterite definite 
cannot be used, because the unit of time, a day, a week, a month, a 
year, &c, is not entirely elapsed; but if the fact we wish to mention 
took place yesterday, last week, last month, last year, last age, &c, 
the unit of time, a day, a week, a month, &c, being entirely passed, 
the preterite definite is the tense which should be employed to express 
it ; as in, 

Your brother came to see me yesterday, Votre frere vint me voir hier, et me dit 

and told me that he had not heard qu'il n'avait pas recu de nouvelles 

from you for two months. de vous depuis deux mois. 

What did you tell my father when you Que dites-vous a mon pere quand vous 

saw him last week! le vites la semaine derniere? 

When the President went to Boston, Lorsque le President alia a Boston, le 

last month, what sensation did his mois dernier, quelle sensation sa pre- 

presence produce there ! sence y produisit-e\\e 1 

When did Congress meet last year ! Quand le Congres s'assembla't-il 

They met, as usual, on the fourth of Vannee derniere? II s'assembla le 

December. quatre Decembre, comme a l'ordi- 

naire. 

When did Franklin go to France ! A quelle epoque Franklin alla-t-\\ en 

He went there towards the end of France ! II s'y rendit vers la fin du 

the last century. siecle dernier. 

620. But it is not often the case that the unit of time is expressed 
by the words day, week, month, &c. ; most generally it is to be discov- 
ered by the thread of events in the relation. The question is, then, 
whether the period during which the fact described by the verb took 



^72 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

place is entirely elapsed or not ; the analysis of the following sentence 
will show how to reason in similar cases. 

Amenophis conceived the design of making his son a conqueror; he set 
about it after the manner of the Egyptians, that is to say, with great ideas; all 
the children who were born on the same day as Sesostris were brought to court 
by order of the king; he had them educated as his own children, and with the 
same care as Sesostris; when he was grown up, he made him serve his appren- 
ticeship in a war with the Arabs ; this young prince learned there to bear hunger 
and thirst, and subdued that nation, till then invincible. 

Let us examine each verb separately, and see which of them should 
be used in the preterite definite. 

Conceived. Amenophis had a son ; after having considered what 
he should do with him at some future day, he concluded he would 
make him a conqueror ; the unit of time is, then, the length of time 
during which he thought of his son's fate, till he conceived the design 
mentioned in the sentence ; that period of time is entirely elapsed, 
and conceived should be used in the preterite definite. 

He set about it. Amenophis, after having made up his mind that 
his son should be a conqueror, commenced the execution of that 
design. What he set himself about is entirely accomplished, since his 
son became in fact a conqueror, and the unit of time, which is the 
period of time necessary for these preparations to be completed, being 
entirely over, set should be used in the preterite definite. 

Were brought. Amenophis, wishing that his son should have com- 
panions of his own age, ordered that all the children who were born 
on the same day as his son should be brought to court. This does 
not, certainly, mean that the children were all brought to court on the 
same day, but it is, however, represented as a single fact, the result of 
a single order, and the unit of time is the period which was necessary 
for that order to be executed ; it is all over, since these children were 
educated like Sesostris ; therefore, were brought should still be used in 
the preterite definite. 

He had them educated. This expression embraces the whole period 
of time during which the education of the children took place ; the 
unit of time is the length of that period ; it is entirely elapsed, since 
the sentence expresses that this education was the same as that of the 
children of Amenaphis, which did not certainly remain unfinished ; the 
preterite definite should then still be used in this case. 

When he was grown up. The unit of time, in this expression, is 
the length of the period which had been necessary for the son of 
Amenophis to grow up to manhood. This period is entirely elapsed 



VERB. 273 

eince Sesostris entered then upon his new career of a conqueror ; 
hence the preterite definite again. 

He made kirn serve his apprenticeship, &c. The unit of time is 
here the whole time of Sesostris' apprenticeship ; it is past altogether, 
since he became afterwards a great monarch himself; made should 
then be used in the preterite definite 

This young prince learned there, &c. This sentence expresses a 
fact which took place during the apprenticeship of Sesostris ; and 
since this apprenticeship is entirely past, the unit of time implied in 
this case is also past, and the same tense should be used as in the 
preceding case. 

And subdued that nation, &c. The unit of time is here the length 
of time which was employed by Sesostris to effect the conquest of the 
nation spoken of; it is entirely past, since the nation was subdued; 
therefore, the preterite definite should still be used, and the whole sen- 
tence translated as follows : 

Amenophis concut le dessein de faire de son fils un conquerant; il s'y prit a la 
maniere des Egyptiens, c'est a dire, avec de grandes idees; tous les enfants qui 
etaient nes le meme jour que Sesostris furent amenes a la cour par ordre du roi; 
il les fit e lever cornme ses propres enfants, et avec le meme soin que Sesostris ; 
quand il fut grand, il lui fit faire son apprentissage par une guerre avec les 
Arabes; ce jeune prince y apprit a soufFrir la faim et la soif, et il subjugua cette 
nation, jusqu'alors invincible. 

620. The principles developed in the preceding explanations, 
although perfectly correct, and sufficient to guide a foreigner in the 
use of the preterite definite, do not find their application in conversa- 
tion, or in writing letters, when speaking of facts of a common and 
daily occurrence ; because it should be well understood that the use 
of the preterite definite always requires that the mind should be 
strongly impressed with the idea of the precise moment when the fact 
mentioned took place, which is not generally the case in conversa- 
tion, when we think a great deal more of the fact itself than of the 
very moment when that fact took place ; the use of the preterite defi- 
nite in like cases would show an air of affectation, which should 
always be avoided when speaking French ; the preterite indefinite is 
the tense which should then be properly used, to conform with the 
habit of the people and the genius of the language. We shall, in the 
next chapter, illustrate this difficulty by a series of examples. 

621. The preterite definite is invariably expressed in French by 
one word ; as, je lahourai, which corresponds to the English expres- 
sions, I ploughed, I did plough, or, i" was ploughing, when the 
meaning of the sentence is such as to require the use of that tense. 



274 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

622. This preterite is used to express that an action or a fact has 
taken place, but without reference to any particular time, or period of 
time, and without intimating whether the action or fact spoken of is 
entirely past or not. There is, in fine, in the idea conveyed by this 
preterite, something vague and indefinite, which completely distin- 
guishes it from the preceding tense ; when I say, 

I have ploughed my field this morning, J 'ai laboure mon champ ce matin, 

the act of ploughing is certainly in the past, as regards the time 
when I speak ; bat it took place during the morning, which is a part 
of the day, which day is not over. This last circumstance is charac- 
terized in the language by using the preterite indefinite ; according to 
this principle, we w 7 ould say, 

He has worked much this week, and II a beaucoup travaille cette semaine, et 
he worked much yesterday, or the il travailla beaucoup hier ou avant 
day before yesterday, hier; 

because, the week not being entirely past, the preterite definite could 
not be used ; whereas, it should be employed in the last part of the 
sentence, the day spoken of being entirely over, though the week is 
not. According to the same principle, we should say, 

My pupils have studied well this year, Mes eleves ont bien ctudie cette annee, 
and they did study well last month, et ils etudierent bien le mois der- 

nier; 

using the preterite indefinite first, because the year is not past, and 
the preterite definite afterwards, because the month is over. 

We see, then, that the choice to be made between these two tenses 
depends upon what is taken as a unit to measure the time, whether a 
day, a week, a month, or a year; if that unit of time be over, the 
preterite definite ought to be used ; if not entirely done, then the pret- 
erite indefinite ; but it must be observed that this unit of time can 
never be less than twenty-four hours. 

623. The preterite indefinite is also used when wo wish to express 
an action or a situation which is past, without fixing the time in a 
precise manner, or when we speak of a fact or action which has 
usually taken place ; thus, we say, 

He has read much, studied much; he II a beaucoup lit, beaucoup etudie; il a 
has benefited himself by his reading; profite de ses lectures; il a reflechi 
he has reflected all his life, toute sa vie ; 



VERB. 



275 



because, in all these propositions, we wish to express but a habit, or 
a past action, without any precise reference to the time when it took 
place. It seems that, in cases like these, the time taken as the unit 
is the life of the person spoken of; and as this life is not over, accord- 
ing to the preceding rules, this preterite is the tense which should 
express it. 

624. This explanation conforms so much to the principles already 
explained, that, if we spoke of a person who is no more, we should 
use the preterite definite or the pluperfect, and say, 

II hit beaucoiip, il profit a de ses lectures, 
or, II avait beaucoup luj il avail beaucoup prqfite, &c. ; 

by using the preterite definite, we only show that the unit of time, 
life, is over ; by using the pluperfect, the mind embraces two facts , 
that which was performed during the life of the person spoken of, and 
and that of his death, both being past ; but the former having taken 
place before the latter, without mentioning how long before, which, 
as we shall see, is characteristic of the pluperfect. 

625. The analysis of the following sentence will sufficiently illus- 
trate the rules contained in the preceding paragraphs. 

Inflamed with the desire of knowing mankind, I have travelled, not only among 
the most polished nations, but even among the most barbarous. I have observed 
tliem in the different degrees of civilization, from the state of simple nature to 
the most perfect state of society; and wherever I went, the result was the same: — 
that is to say, I have everywhere seen beings occupied in drying up the different 
sources of happiness that nature had placed within their reach. 

/ have travelled. It is clear, that the time when the journey spoken 
of was made is past; but where is the unit of time to be found? 
Is there expressed in this sentence, anything to show when the 
journey took place ; is it even necessary that this time should be 
known ? It is not ; the only thing mentioned is that the person who 
speaks has travelled ; but when and how long do not occupy the 
mind, and this want of precision in reference to the time when the fact 
mentioned took place is characteristic of the preterite indefinite. 

I have observed them. &c. If the principal fact of travelling is 
vague and indefinite, in reference to time, the facts which took place 
during the voyage partake of the same vagueness, and should be 
expressed by the same tense. 

And wherever I went, the result was the same. The two verbs 1 
went and was should also be used in the preterite indefinite, because 
the facts which they represent having taken place during the jour- 



276 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

ney, which, we have seen, is indefinite, assume the same character, 
and should be expressed by the same tense. 

I have everywhere seen, &c. The preceding remarks apply to this 
verb, and need not be repeated ; the above sentence should then be 
rendered as follows : 

Enflamme du desir de connaitre les homines, j'az voyage, non settlement parmi 
les nations les plus policees, mais aussi parmi les plus barbares; je les ai obser- 
vees dans leurs differents degres de civilisation, depuis l'etat de simple nature 

^"usqu'a l'etat de societe le plus parfait; et partout ouje suis alle, le resultat a ete 
e meme: — c'est-a-dire, que j'ai vu partout des etres occupes a tarir les sources 
de bonheur que la nature avait placees a leur portee. 

626. Remark. The preterite indefinite is also used generally in 
conversation and in writing letters, although the unit of time is speci- 
fied and entirely elapsed ; this is a matter of habit, which arises, very 
likely, from the fact, that, when speaking of events of a daily occur- 
rence, the mind is more strongly impressed with the idea of the fact 
itself than with that of the precise moment when that fact took place. 
Thus, when I say, I went to the theatre last night with your sister, 
the idea which predominates in my mind is, that I went to the theatre 
with your sister ; it is what I wish you to know ; the fact that it was 
last night is of a secondary consideration ; hence the habit of saying, 
/ have been to the theatre last night, instead of, I went, or J did go. 
This remark is very important, because the use of the preterite 
definite in like cases would show a desire for precision which would 
appear rather pedantic, and expose the speaker to be ridiculed. The 
following sentences will give a sufficient idea of this peculiarity in our 
habits : 

627. What have you been doing these Qu'avez-vous fait depuis quinze jours 1 

two weeks'? I went to New York, Je suis allee a New York, ou j'ai 

where I spent several days. Did passe plusieurs jours. Vous y etes 

you enjoy yourself much there 1 Yes, vous beaucoup amusee? Oui, j'y ai 

I had a very pleasant time ; the passe le temps de la maniere la plus 

weather was very fine ; I had a sleigh- agreable. II a fait un temps magni- 

ride every day, and went to the opera fique ; je me suis promenee en trai- 

every evening; my father was very neau tous les jours, et j'ai ete a 

kind to me, and let me do all I l'opera tous les soirs; raon pere a eti 

pleased. tres bon pour moi,et m'a laisse faire 

tout ce que j'«i voulu. 

Every verb used in the above sentence expresses a fact which is 
entirely past ; the unit of time, week, is entirely elapsed, but it is 
evident that the mind is more strongly impressed with the idea of the 
facts themselves than with that of the very moment when these facta 
took place ; hence the use of the preterite indefinite. 



VERB. 277 

628. But if the facts which are related were of such a nature as to 
follow one another in succession, and form a narrative, which, in order 
to be made impressive and clear, should require that they should be 
taken singly, this want of precision would require the use of the 
preterite definite ; as in, 

You wish me to tell you the particulars Vous desirez que je vous raconte les 
of the accident which happened to details de l'accident qui est arrive 
my wife yesterday. Here they are : hier a ma fenime. Eh bien ! les 
She wished to take a ride on horse- void : Elle desirait faire une pro- 
back, and, after dinner, I sent my menade a cheval, et, apres diner, 
servant after the horse. She rides yenvoyai mon domestique chercher 
very well, as you know, and she les chevaux. Elle est tres bonne 
jumped on her horse without my as- ecuyere, comme vous le savez, et 
sistance; but she was no sooner in elle sauta a cheval sans mon secours ; 
the saddle, than the horse started mais elle ne fut pas plutot en selle, 
at full gallop. I ran after her, but que le cheval partit au galop. Je 
the horse became furious ; she could courus apres elle, mais son cheval 
not manage him, and I perceived s'emportaj elle ne put le conduire, et 
she was frightened. I then succeeded je m'apperpus qu'elle avail peur. 
in getting hold of the bridle, but the Cependant je reussis a me saisir de 
horse reared and she fell ; fortunately, la bride, mais son cheval se cabra et 
her foot did not remain entangled in elle tomba' heuieusement, son pied se 
the stirrup. I alighted, raised her desengagea de Pettier. Je desendis de 
in my arms, and she fainted away. cheval, je la relevai,et. elle s'evanouit 
Several persons gathered around us ; dans mes bras. Plusieurs personnes 
I begged of a gentleman to get me a s' assembler ent autour de nous ; je 
carriage, and I brought her home in- priai un monsieur d'aller me cher- 
sensible; but she soon recovered, and cher une voiture, et je la ramenai a 
is now doing well. la maison sans connaissance ; mais 

elle revint bientot a elle, et elle est 
assez bien aujourd'hui. 

The use of the preterite indefinite would render this narration flat 
and intolerable to the ear. 

629. Remark. Whenever a verb in the future past in English is 
preceded by the conjunction if, meaning suppose that, that verb is 
expressed in French by the preterite indefinite ; as in, 

I will give you five dollars, if you will Je vous donnerai cinq gourdes, si vous 
have my coat done to-morrow at six avez fini mon habit demain a six 
o'clock. heures. 

630. It should be remarked, that the preterite indefinite is always 
expressed in French by the present of the indicative of the verb to 
have, and the past participle of the verb to be used in that tense ; 
thus, J'ai laboure corresponds to the English expressions, J have 
ploughed, and / have been ploughing. 

631. When speaking of the age of a person who is no more, if we 
wish to express with accuracy how many years, months, and days 

24 



278 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

he did live, either of the preterites definite or indefinite should be 
used ; as in, 

He was a hundred years oJd when he II a eu, or il eut, cent ans le jour de sa 
died. (Meaning that he accomplished mort. 
his hundredth year on the day of his 
death.) 

632. When speaking of the birth of a person who is still living, the 
preterite indefinite should be used, because the unit of time being 
life, daring which the fact of the birth is not destroyed, it is not 
entirely elapsed ; as in, 

My father was born in 1800. Mon pere est ne en 1800. 

But if we speak of a person who is no more, the preterite definite 
or the pluperfect should be used ; as in, 

Mon pere naquit, or etait-ne, en 1800. 

With the preterite definite, the mind embraces but one idea, that 
of the cessation of life, with which the fact of the birth disappears ; 
with the pluperfect, the mind refers to the fact of the birth as having 
preceded that of death, both being over, but the first having taken 
place before the other, without the circumstance that it was immedi- 
ately before, which particulars are the characteristics of the pluper- 
fect. 

Although the distinction thus established between these two 
preterites ought to be strictly observed in the language, foreigners 
might be deceived by hearing Frenchmen using them indifferently, 
one for the other. The only conclusion to be derived from this 
remark is, that a great many of my countrymen do not speak their 
own language properly ; but their example ought not to be fol- 
lowed. 

OF THE PLUPERFECT. 

633. The pluperfect is used to express that a fact has taken place 
before another fact which is also past, without reference to the length 
of time elapsed between the two ; the fact expressed by this tense is 
then doubly past, once in regard to the time when it is mentioned, and 
once as to the event which it has preceded ; which makes it more than 
past, and from which originated its name of the pluperfect, which 
means past more than perfectly past, or past twice ; as in, 



VERB. 279 

I had breakfasted when you came to J'avais dejeune quand vous vi rites chez 
my house. moi. 

The breakfast is done, and it was done before you came ; hence the 
pluperfect. 

634. The analysis of the following sentences will illustrate the rule 
we have given above. 

Calypso, having shown Telemachus all these natural beauties, said to him, 
" Rest yourself; your clothes are wet; it is time for you to change them; then wo 
shall see each other again, and I will tell you facts which will touch your heart." 
In the mean time, she brought him, with Mentor, into the most secret part of a 
grotto, near that where the goddess dwdt. The nymphs had kindled in this 
grotto a large fire of cedar wood, the pleasant smell of which spread itself on all 
sides ; and they had left there some clothes for their new guests. 

She brought him expresses a fact which took place at a certain pre- 
cise time entirely past, and should be used in the preterite definite. 

Dwelt expresses a situation implying an idea of duration, and 
requires the use of the imperfect. 

Had kindled expresses an action performed by the nymphs before 
the goddess came to the grotto with her guests, but without specifying 
how long before their coming the fire had been kindled ; this vague- 
ness, in reference to the time when the first fact took place before the 
other, is characteristic of the pluperfect. 

And they had left there, &c, expresses, also, a fact which took place 
before the goddess came to the grotto with Mentor and Telemachus, 
but with the same vagueness as in the preceding case, in reference to 
the time which elapsed between the two facts ; hence the pluperfect 
again. 

Spread itself expresses the repetition of the same action, the con- 
stant renewal of the smell produced by the burning of the cedar wood, 
and should be rendered by the imperfect. 

The above sentence should, then, be rendered as follows : 

Calypso, apres avoir montre a Telemaque toutes ces beautes naturelles, lui 
dit, " Reposez-vous ; vos vetements sont mouilles; il est temps que vous en 
changiez; ensuite nous nous reverrons, et je vous dirai des choses qui toucheront 
votre coeur." Elle le conduisit alors avec Mentor, dans le lieu le plus secret 
d'une grotte, pres de celle ou la deesse demeurait. Les nymphes avaient allume 
dans cette grotte un feu de bois de cedre, dont l'odeur agreable se repandait de 
tous cotes ; et elles y avaient laisse des vetements pour les nouveaux hdtes. 

635. Remark. Whenever a verb in the conditional past in English 
is preceded by the conjunction if, meaning suppose that, that verb is 
used in the pluperfect in French, if would or should expresses a mere 
contingency; and in the infinitive mood, preceded by the pluperfect 



280 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of the verb to be willing, vouloir, if an idea of will is implied in the 
meaning of the sentence ; as in, 

f S'ils Vavaient poursuivi, (no will,) ils 
If they would, or should, have pursued j 1'auraient attrappe 

~ 'ils avaient voulu le % 
ils 1'auraient attrappe. 



him, they might have caught him. | S'ils avaient voulu \epoursuivre,(a. will,) 



When could is used, instead of would or should, to express a con- 
ditional past in English, after if, meaning suppose that, as that word 
always implies an idea of possibility, it is expressed in French by the 
pluperfect of the verb to he able, pouvoir, and the verb following is 
used in the infinitive mood ; as in, 

I would have been much obliged to you, Vous m'auriez rendu un grand service, 
if you could have done this work si vous aviez pufinircetoxwYagelner 
yesterday at twelve o'clock. a midi. 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

636. We have said, speaking of the pluperfect, that it expresses 
that a fact has taken place before another fact which is also past, 
without reference to the time elapsed between the two facts ; but, if 
we wish to establish a more intimate relation between these two facts, 
so as to show that one took place immediately before the other, this 
circumstance of one fact following the other immediately, requires the 
use of a distinct tense, which is called the Preterite Anterior ; as in, 

As soon as I had dined, I went out. Aussitut que feus dine, je sortis. 

The meaning of this sentence shows in a definite manner the pre- 
cise moment when the two facts which it mentions took place ; for the 
end of my dinner preceded immediately the fact of my going out, and 
my going out took place immediately after I had dined ; the two verbs 
are, then, preterites, definite in reference to time ; but one expresses 
a fact which took place before that expressed by the other, and, in 
consequence of it, is called Preterite Anterior. It follows, from this 
definition, that the verb which is used after a preterite anterior cannot 
be in any other tense than the preterite definite. 

637. The following analysis will illustrate the preceding rule. 



As soon as the moon had appeared above the horizon, Mentor, who had heard 
the voice of the goddess, who was calling her nymphs in the woods, awakened 
Telemachus. 

Had appeared expresses a fact which took place immediately before 
Mentor awakened Telemachus ; it is, then, a preterite anterior, and 
awakened is a preterite definite. 



VERB. 2S1 

Had heard expresses a fact which took place before the moon had 
appeared above the horizon ; but how long before 1 This circumstance 
is not mentioned, and is not implied in the meaning of the sentence ; 
this verb is, then, a pluperfect, and not a preterite anterior, as the first. 

Was calling expresses a fact which was taking place at the same 
time as the moon was rising above the horizon ; it implies, besides, an 
idea of repetition and duration ; it should, therefore, be expressed by 
the imperfect. 

ANALYSIS OF SEVERAL SENTENCES, SHOWING HOW THE PUPILS SHOULD REASON 
IN ORDER TO ASCERTAIN WHICH OF THE PAST TENSES THEY SHOULD USE. 

638. Telemachus and Mentor had been exposed to great danger; 
in the midst of a tempest, they were thrown among the fleet of the 
Trojans, their most deadly enemies. In this emergency, Mentor, 
by his courage and presence of mind, saved his friend and himself; 
and Telemachus, living afterwards in the island of Calypso, relates 
the fact of their escape to the goddess, in the following words : 

The mildness and courage of the wise Mentor charmed me; but I was still 
more surprised when I saw with what skill he rid us of the Trojans. When the 
skies began to clear up, and the Trojans ivere about to discover who we were, he 
remarked one of their ships, which ivas similar to ours, and which the tempest 
had separated from the others; she had her poop crowned with certain flowers. 
He hastened to place on our poop wreaths of similar flowers ; he attached them 
himself, with little bands of the same color as those of the Trojans; he ordered 
all our rowers to stoop as low as they could along their seats, so as not to be 
recognised by the enemy; in this position, we passed in the midst of their fleet. 
They screamed with joy when they saw us, as if they saw again friends whom 
they had thought lost. We were even compelled, by the violence of the storm, to 
saif some time with them; finally, we stood a little in the rear, and, whilst the 
boisterous winds drove them towards Africa, we used our greatest exertions to 
land on the neighboring coast of Sicily. 

Charmed me. If the idea expressed by the verb is, that Telema- 
chus was habitually charmed by the mildness and courage of Mentor, 
charmed should be used in the imperfect ; but, if it is only intended to 
signify that, on a particular occasion, previous to his getting rid of 
the Trojans, the mildness and courage exhibited by Mentor charmed 
him, the verb charmed should be used in the preterite definite ; the 
unit of time being the period during which he was charmed before 
he got rid of the Trojans. 

I was still more surprised expresses an instantaneous fact, which 
took place when Telemachus saw with what skill Mentor acted after- 
wards. The unit of time is the period during which the surprise did 
last ; it is entirely past at the time he speaks ; hence the preterite 
definite. 

24* 



282 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

He rid us expresses a fact entirely accomplished, since Telema- 
chus is then safe in the island of Calypso ; the time when that fact 
took place is fixed in his mind, and the unit of time is the length of 
time which was necessary to accomplish his deliverance. 

When the skies began to dear up. The verb began, in this case, 
may be used either in the imperfect or the preterite definite ; it de- 
pends altogether upon the view of the mind. If Telemachus means 
that, whilst the skies were beginning to clear up, Mentor remarked, &c, 
the verb began should express an action which was taking place at 
the same time when another action took place, and should be used in 
the imperfect ; but if, on the contrary, he means that, after the skies 
had begun to clear up a little, Mentor remarked, &c, the verb began 
should express a distinct part of an action, which, itself, was already 
accomplished when Mentor remarked, &c, the unit of time being the 
length of the beginning of the clearing up, which would be entirely 
elapsed at the moment when the remark was made ; hence the pret- 
erite definite. 

Were about to discover, &c. Were expresses here a mere situation, 
and not a fact, for Telemachus and Mentor were not discovered at 
all ; this situation implies an idea of duration, for it lasted as long as 
the skill of Mentor had not modified it ; were should, then, be used 
in the imperfect. 

Who we were. Were expresses also a situation ; the two individu- 
als spoken of had always been, previous to that time, the one Telem- 
achus and the other Mentor; they were still such men then, and 
would always be the same ; the situation implies, then, an idea of 
duration, and should be expressed by the imperfect. 

He remarked. This verb expresses a single isolated and instanta- 
neous fact, which took place at a certain moment, when the skies had 
cleared up so far ; it is altogether past, the unit of time being that of 
a mere glance ; hence the preterite definite. 

Which ivas similar, &c. Was expresses here the situation of the 
ship spoken of, which, by a mere chance, was built on the same 
pattern as that of Telemachus ; this situation implies an idea of dura- 
tion ; for these two ships would remain similar till they would be 
altered or destroyed ; hence the imperfect. 

Had separated expresses a fact which had taken place before an- 
other, both being past, without specifying how long the one had taken 
place before the other ; for it only signifies that the storm had separ- 
ated that ship from the others before they saw it ; hence the pluperfect. 

She had her poop, &c, expresses the mere situation of the poop; 



VERB. 283 

it implies duration, since the poop had been crowned with certain 
flowers before the ship was discovered ; hence the imperfect. 

He hastened, &c. When Mentor saw the Trojan ship, a fact took 
place ; he saw that he could take advantage of this circumstance by- 
decorating his own vessel in the same way, and he hastened, &c. ; 
hastened expressed, then, an action which took place at a certain precise 
time entirely elapsed, the unit of time being the mere instant which 
separated the thought from the act of hastening ; hence the preterite 
definite. 

He ordered our rowers expresses a fact of the same nature as the 
preceding, and requires no other explanation. 

As low as they could. Could is a verb which signifies either, as 
they were naturally able to stoop, or, as they would be able to stoop if 
they tried to do it as low as possible. In the first instance, could should 
express a mere ability of doing a thing, that is to say, a situation, and 
should require the use o'f the imperfect ; in the latter, it should express 
a fact which would take place if a condition were accomplished, that 
of trying as much as possible, and should, then, be rendered by the 
conditional present of the verb to be able. 

We passed in the midst of their fleet. After the rowers had obeyed 
the order of stooping as low as they could, a fact took place, that of 
passing through the Trojan fleet ; the unit of time is the period which 
was necessary for Telemachus and Mentor to effectuate that passage ; 
it is altogether past, since they landed afterwards on the coast of 
Sicily ; therefore, the time being specified, and the unit of time elapsed, 
the preterite definite should be used. 

They screamed with joy tolien they saw us. The second verb, saw, 
shows the time when the fact expressed by the first took place ; the 
unit of time is the time during which they screamed ; it is entirely 
past ; therefore, screamed should be used in the preterite definite. Aa 
to the verb saw, it expresses a fact which implies no idea of duration, 
which took place all at once ; the unit of time is a mere instant ; the 
whole is altogether over ; this last verb should, then, also be expressed 
by the same tense as the first. 

As if they saw again, &c. The preterite definite, always implying 
the idea of a fact as having taken place at a certain precise time which 
is entirely elapsed, cannot be used in reference to a mere matter of 
fancy, such as is expressed in this case ; the verb saw only expresses 
a situation of the mind in the past, and should, therefore, be rendered 
by the imperfect. 

Had thought lost. The Trojans thought their friends were lost 



284 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

before their meeting with the vessel of Telemachus ; had thought 
expresses, then, a fact which had taken place before another; but 
how long before they met with this vessel had they thought their 
friends lost? Nothing shows, in this case, that it was immediately 
before ; and, therefore, the fact expressed by that verb has all the 
characteristics of the pluperfect, and should be rendered by that tense. 

We were even compelled, &c, expresses a fact which was the result 
of the storm ; the unit of time is the period during which they had to 
remain restrained in their wish to escape from the sight of the Tro- 
jans ; that unit of time is elapsed, since they finally escaped to the 
coast of Sicily ; hence the preterite definite. 

We stood a Utile in the rear expresses a fact of the same nature as 
the preceding ; the unit of time is the period during which they stood 
in the rear ; it is past, for the same reason as before ; hence the same 
tense. 

Whilst the boisterous winds drove them, &c, expresses a fact which 
was progressing, and during which another fact, expressed by the 
next verb, took place; it implies duration, and requires the use of 
the imperfect. 

We used our greatest exertions, &c, expresses a fact which took 
place at the period mentioned in the first part of the sentence ; it does 
not imply the idea of duration ; it is presented to the mind as a whole ; 
the unit of time is the period during which the efforts were made ; it 
is elapsed since Telemachus landed on the coast of Sicily ; hence the 
preterite definite. 

We deem the preceding analysis sufficient to guide foreigners in 
the choice of the proper tenses to be used in our language ; and we 
may assure them, that, if they are willing to use this mode of reason- 
ing for some time in the course of their studies, they will soon acquire 
a facility for discovering at once what is the tense which is required 
by the meaning of the sentence they have to translate. 

OF OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE PAST. 

639. We sometimes, in order to be more precise, use expressions 
of a peculiar nature, which belong to the idiom of the language. 

For instance, to express that a fact has just taken place, instead of 
making a phrase which would require the use of several words, the 
verb venir, to come, is elegantly used ; as in, 

I have just done reading this work. Je viens de finir la lecture de cet 

ouvrage. 
I have just spoken to him about this Je viens de lui parler de cette affaire, 
affair. 



VERB. 235 

These sorts of preterite express the past which is the nearest to 
the present. We also use the imperfect of the verb aller, to go, to 
express that we were about doing a thing ; as in, 

John, why do you not bring my coat 1 Jean, pourquoi n'apportez-vous pas 

mon habit 1 
I was going to bring it, sir, when you J'allais l'apporter, monsieur, quand 
called me. vous m'avez appele. 

OF THE FORMS OF VERBS WHICH RELATE TO THE PAST. 

640. We have, then, according to what precedes, five different 
ways of expressing past events : 

The Imperfect ; 

The Preterite Definite ; 

The Preterite Indefinite ; 

The Pluperfect ; 

The Preterite Anterior ; 

without mentioning the manner of expressing a fact just past, with 
the verbs venir and aller. 

With these forms, we may indicate with precision all that is con- 
nected with the past, so as to satisfy the mind of both the speaker and 
hearer. 

OF THE FUTURE. 

641. The future is, as we have already said, a tense which ex- 
presses that an action or a fact has not yet taken place, but will or 
shall take place. 

This action or fact in the future may be understood in two different 
manners ; when I say, 

I shall plough my field, Je labourerai mon champ, 

I express, in a manner simple and absolute, an action which I intend 
to perform in the future, without referring to any particular time. 
This form remains the same, whatever may be the epoch in the future 
when the action shall be performed ; for I may say, with the same 
propriety, 

I shall plough in an hour, this evening, Je labourerai dans une heure, ce soir- 
to-morrow, in a week, in a month, demain, dans une semaine, dans mi 
in a year, in an age. mois, dans un an, daus un siecle. 

642. This form is called Future Present, Simple, or Absolute. 
Present, because it is not mixed with any idea connected with the 
past. Sijnple, because it is expressed without the assistance of any 



286 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of the auxiliary verbs. Absolute, because it expresses an action or 
situation in the future in an absolute manner, without reference to any 
particular time in that future. 

But sometimes the form of the present is used to express a future, 
as in this sentence : 

I start to-morrow at eight o'clock. Je pars demain a huit heures. 

It is evident that the idea of the future is not rendered by the pres- 
entee pars, but by the addition of the adverb demain; and, if we say, 
je pars, and not^'e partirai, it is probably because we wish to express, 
that the person who speaks has positively made up his mind to go, in 
a manner as positive and sure as if he had to go right away, the very 
minute he speaks ; he wishes to express how certain, how positively 
sure, he is to start the next day. 

OF ANOTHER WAY OF EXPRESSING A FUTURE. 

643. When we wish to express, not only that a fact will or shall 
take place, but that it will take place immediately, which in English 
is rendered by the expressions to be about and to go, this idea of 
immediate futurity is expressed in French by the verb to go, aller, 
used in the present tense ; as in, 

John, I want my coat. John, je veux mon habit. 

It is ready, sir; lam about, or I am II est pret, monsieur; je vais voua 
going, to bring it to you. l'apporter. 

OF THE FUTURE PAST, OR ANTERIOR. 

644. The other form of expressing a future is the following : 

I shall have ploughed my field when J'aurai laboure mon champ quand vous 
you come back. reviendrez. 

In this case, we express an action which is not done yet, and conse- 
quently future in regard to the moment we speak, but which shall be 
done and past when another fact takes place. 

This form, then, expresses altogether a future as to the time when 
we speak, and a past as to another action in the future. This double 
consideration of a future joined to a past has caused this tense to be 
called Future Past; and we see well enough how these two qualifica- 
tions do not imply contradiction. 

It is also called a Composed or Compound Future, because the use of 
this tense requires the assistance of the auxiliary verb to have. 



VERB. 287 



QUESTIONS. 

591. What is the definition of a verb 1 

592. How can a verb be distinguished from any other word which is spelt 
like it 1 

592. What idea does a verb express in any language 1 

592. Has not the verb modifications in order to express the different views 
of the mind * 

592. Since there is but one verb, to be, which, being modified according to 
the views of the mind, expresses sufficiently all our ideas, why have men invented 
so many words, generally called verbs, and which contain, in their meaning, the 
principal idea of existence, with such modifications as are required by the wants 
of the mind 1 

593. Is the verb modified in its spelling according to the different situations 
in which its subject can be found *? 

594. What is the meaning uf a verb being used in the singular or plural 1 

595. What are persons in the verbs 1 and what do we understand by saying 
that a verb is in the first, second, or third person singular or plural 1 

596. When we address, in French, a person we are not very familiar with, 
do we use the second person singular or plural 1 

596. When the pronoun you, vous, is thus used instead of thou, tu, are the 
adjectives and past participles relating to that pronoun used in the singular or 
in the plural 1 

596. Do not writers and speakers generally use the plural pronoun we, nous, 
when speaking of themselves 1 Should, then, the adjectives and participles 
relating to that pronoun, nous, be used in the singular or in the plural 1 

597, 59S. How are the several modifications called which a verb receives to 
express, either that a fact has taken place in the past, does take place now, or 
will take place in the future 1 

599. How many tenses are used to express that a fact is present 1 

600. A fact, to be expressed in the present tense, should it absolutely take 
place instantaneously, at a time which is metaphysically indivisible 1 

600, 601. What should be considered as the unit of time, for a verb to be 
used in the present tense ! 

602. If we wish to express an habitual situation or action of the subject, still 
existing at the time we speak, what tense should be used 1 

603. Is not the imperfect sometimes used to express a fact in the present *? 
In which case 1 

604. Is not the present sometimes used in speaking of facts entirely past 1 
For what purpose 1 

605. When if, meaning suppose that, is used in English before a verb in the 
future tense, what tense is used in French instead of the future 1 

606. When a verb, although in the present tense in English, expresses a 
fact which has not yet taken place, what tense should be used in French 1 

607. Whenever a verb expresses a fact which is true at all times, what tense 
should be used in French, whatever may be the tense used in English 1 

608. Have the French, like the English, three different manners of expressing 
a fact in the present tense 1 

609. 610. When a verb expresses that a fact was taking place in the past at 
the same time that another action took place, what tense should be used in 
French, in reference to the first fact 1 

611. When a verb in the past expresses an action as being habitually done, 
or implies an idea of situation or duration, what tense should be used in 
French 1 

612. When a verb expresses a situation of the mind, or natural feelings and 
dispositions, in a time which is past, what tense should be used in French 1 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

613. What tense is used in French to express the approximate age of a 
person at the time of his death 1 Why is the imperfect used in such a case 1 

614. What tenses are used in French when speaking either of a person still 
living, or of one who is no more 1 

615. When if, meaning suppose that, precedes a verb in the conditional in 
English, in what tense should that verb be used in French 1 

616. When a verb expresses a fact which, although happening at a time 
entirely past, implies an idea of continuation or duration, in what tense should 
that verb be expressed in French 1 

617. Have the French, like the English, three different manners of using a 
verb in the imperfect tense 1 

618. In what case is the preterite definite used in French 1 

618. What is understood in grammar by the expression, " unit of time " 1 
618. Can the preterite definite be used in speaking of a fact which took place 
to-day, this week, this month, this year, &c. 1 

618. Why cannot the preterite definite be used in speaking of a fact which 
took place to-day, this week, this month, &c. 1 

619. Is the unit of time always clearly expressed in a sentence which requires 
the verbs to be used in the preterite definite 1 

619. When die unit of time is not expressed, how should a foreigner reason 
in order to discover what that unit of time is, and whether it is entirely elapsed 
or not 1 

(Here the teacher should exact from his pupils that they should parse, with 
a great deal of attention, the examples given in the grammar. He should make 
them analyze each verb, so as to show clearly why the preterite definite, or any 
other tense, should be used for each particular case.) 

620. In conversation, or in writing letters, although the facts which are 
related have taken place at a definite period, and the unit of time is entirely 
elapsed, is the preterite definite properly used to express those facts 1 

620. Why is the preterite indefinite used in the preceding case, in preference 
to the preterite definite 1 

621. Have the French, like the English, three different manners of using a 
verb in the preterite definite 1 

622. What should be the circumstances in which a fact took place, for that 
fact to be expressed in French by the preterite indefinite 1 

622. What is the difference between the preterite definite and the preterite 
indefinite 1 

622. If the unit of time, expressed or understood in a sentence, should not 
be entirely elapsed, which of the preterites, definite, or indefinite, should be used 1 

622. If the fact which is expressed by the verb took place in the past, at a 
time which is neither mentioned nor understood, but indefinitely past, what tense 
should be used to express that fact 1 

622. When the verb expresses a fact which was habitually done at a time 
which is entirely past, but during the life of the person spoken of, and who is 
still living, what tense should be used 1 

624. But, if the person spoken of in the preceding case was no more, what 
tenses should be used to express the same fact 1 What is the reason of this differ- 
ence in the choice of tenses 1 

625. (The teacher should make his pupils analyze the sentence contained in 
paragraph 625, widi the same care as was recommended for the preterite 
definite.) 

626. What is the tense which is generally used in conversation or in writing 
letters, when speaking of facts entirely past, and the unit of time of which is 
altogether elapsed 1 

626. Why is the preterite indefinite, in such cases, preferred to the preterite 
definite % 

627. (Parse the sentence, paragraph 627.) 

628. But when, even in conversation, the facts which are related follow one 
another so as to form a narrative, is not the preterite definite more properly used 



VERB. 289 

than the preterite indefinite 1 and what character would the use of the latter give 
to the sentence 1 

(Analyze the sentence, paragraph 628.) 

629. Whenever the conjunction if, meaning suppose that, is used in English 
before a verb in the future past, how should that verb be expressed in French 1 

630. Have the French more than one way to use a verb in the preterite 
indefinite 1 

631. When speaking of the age of a person who is no more, if we wish to 
express with accuracy how many years, mondis, and days he has lived, what 
tense should we use 1 

632. When speaking of the birth of a person still living, what tense of the 
verb to be bom should be used in French 1 

632. If the person spoken of should be dead, what tense might be used to 
express that fact 1 and what difference exists between the use of the preterite 
definite and that of the pluperfect 1 

633. In what case is the pluperfect used in French 1 and why is this tense so 
called 1 

634. (Analyze the sentence, paragraph 634.) 

635. Whenever if, meaning suppose that, is used in English before a verb in 
the conditional past, how should that verb be used in French, according to 
the English conditional being expressed by would, should, or could? 

636. For what purpose is the preterite anterior used in French 1 What is 
the difference existing between tiiis tense and the pluperfect 1 

636. By what tense is the preterite anterior invariably followed 1 Why is it 
bo 1 Why is this tense called a preterite anterior 1 

637. (Analyze the sentence, paragraph 637.) 

638. (The analysis contained in paragraph 638, having a reference to the 
five tenses used in French to express a fact in the past, should be studied with 
great care ; and the teacher cannot be too particular in making his pupils try to 
give him an account of all that belongs to the proper use of those tenses.) 

639. If we wish to express a fact in the past as having just taken place, how 
is this done in French 1 

639. What verb is used in French to express that a person was about doing 
a thing 1 and in what tense should that verb be used 1 

640. (Review the tenses in the past in a summary manner.) 

641. When the action expressed by the verb has not taken place, what tense 
should be used to express it 1 

641. Is there more than one tense to express that a fact will or shall take 
place 7 

641. If there is but one tense, how should the sentence be modified in order 
to express the future period in which the fact expressed by the future tense shall 
take place % 

642. Why is this tense called either future simple, absolute, or present 1 

642. Is not the present tense sometimes used to express a fact which has not 
yet taken place 1 How can this be 1 

643. Is there not an idiomatical expression used in French to show that a 
fact is about to take place immediately 1 What is that expression 1 in what 
tense should it be used 7 

644. If we wish to express that a fact will have taken place when another 
fact shall take place, what tense should be used to answer this view of the mind 7 

644. Explain why this tense is called a future past, or a compound future? 

25 



290 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



OF MOODS. 



645. The word mood is derived from the Latin word modus, and 
signifies manner. 

We understand, then, by moods, different ways of expressing the 
existence of a subject, with its attribute ; in other words, moods con- 
tain different forms assumed by the verb, in order to express either an 
action or a situation. There are in French five moods, which are, 

The Indicative ; 
The Conditional ; 
The Imperative ; 
The Subjunctive ; 
The Infinitive. 

646. There are in languages two general kinds of moods ; some are 
personal, some impersonal. 

The personal moods are those where the verb, by its terminations, 
agrees with its subject ; there are four of this class : 
The Indicative ; 
The Conditional ; 
The Imperative ; 
The Subjunctive. 
The impersonal moods are those in which the verb does not change 
its termination, and has no subject to agree with. There is but one 
mood of this class in French, which is the infinitive. 

Personal moods are the only ones which may be used to express a 
proposition, since it is only in these moods that the verb identifies 
itself with its subject, and receives modifications from it in number 
and person. 

Impersonal moods, on the contrary, cannot be used to express a 
proposition, because they are deprived of the forms which would 
enable them to receive the influence of a subject ; they require, to 
form a proposition, the assistance of another verb in a personal mood ; 
as, 

To revenge the death of a father, Venger la mort d'un pdre, 

is not a proposition ; nothing is affirmed or denied by a subject ; it may 
be considered, at the most, as the nominative of another phrase, with 
a verb in a personal mood ; as, 

To revenge the death of a father is Venger la mort d'un p&re est toujours 
always legitimate. legitime. 



VERB. 291 

The extent of the meaning of what are called moods, and of their 
functions, in enabling the mind to communicate its conceptions, will 
be entirely demonstrated by examining each mood in its private 
capacity. 

OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

647. The indicative mood is that which expresses affirmation in a 
positive and absolute manner, and has, for accomplishing its functions 
in the language, eight tenses or forms, which are, as we have already 
seen, 

The Present ; 

The Imperfect ; 

The Preterite Definite ; 

The Preterite Indefinite ; 

The Pluperfect ; 

The Preterite Anterior ; 

The Future Absolute ; 

The Future Past. 

OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

648. When I say, 

I should plough if my oxen were in Je labourerais si mes boeufs etaient en 
good order, bon etat, 



I would have ploughed if it had not J'aurais labour^ s'il n'avait pas plu, 
rained, or, J'eusse iaboure s'il, &c, 

I do not express any longer, as in the indicative, that I am, have 
been, or shall be ploughing, in a positive, absolute manner, but that 
the act of ploughing is depending on a condition or a supposition ; 
if my oxen were well, if it had not rained. 

The action expressed by the verb is then understood in a different 
manner ; it is no longer an absolute affirmation, but a conditional one, 
depending on a supposition. All the forms of language which express 
this condition of the mind produce a new mood, a new manner of 
thinking, which is called conditional. Let us see now what are the 
different forms of this mood. 

649. In the sentence, 

I would plough if it did not rain, Je labourerais s'il ne pleuvait pas. 



292 



FEENCH GEAMMAE. 



I express that the act of ploughing would be performed now, if the 
rain did not fall now ; the mind is then in the present, in reference to 
the act itself and the condition attached to it, and the tense which 
expresses that idea is called Conditional Present. But when I say, 

I should have ploughed if it had not J'aurais labour e s'il n'avait pas plu, 
rained, 

I express a fact which would have taken place in the past, if another 
fact, also in the past, had not prevented it. This double character of 
the past, attached to the fact itself and the condition on which it 
depends, gives to this tense such a character as to deserve the name 
of Conditional Past. This tense is applied with equal propriety to the 
past, in all its modifications ; for we say, 

I should have ploughed this morning, J'aurais laboure ce matin, hier, il y a 
yesterday, twenty or a hundred years vingt ans ou il y a cent ans, &c. 
ago, &c, 

650. The conditional affirmation is, then, the distinct characteristic 
of every form of the conditional mood ; sometimes, it is true, the 
condition is not expressed, but it is always understood. In this 
sentence, for instance, 

* 

One would never believe that he was On ne croirait jamais que ce fat la 
the same person, meme personne* 

the condition is not expressed, but understood, and may be easily sup- 
plied ; as, 

(If one would only look at his ap- C On ne croirait jamais que ce fut la 
pearance.) < meme personne, si 1'on s'en tenait 

( aux apparences. 

The forms proper to the conditional are, then : 

The Conditional Present ; 
The Conditional Past. 



OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

651. Sometimes we do not affirm positively, nor conditionally, but 
we order, we request the subject to perform the act, or to place him- 
self in the situation, expressed by the verb. This new mode of 
considering the effect of the verb is called imperative, and is expressed 
by the imperative mood, from the Latin imperare, which signifies to 
order, to command. 



VERB. 293 

Thus, the command, or positive demand, is the qualification, the 
characteristic, which constitutes the form of the imperative. 

These forms are only two in number. 

We may order the action expressed by the verb to take place 
immediately ; as in, 

Plough. Laboure. 

Let us plough. Labourons. 

Plough. Labourez. 

And this form, relating to the time present, is necessarily a present; 
or it expresses a fact or situation which should always be such at any 
period of our life, and is still a present ; as, 

Let us be always just. Soyons toujours justes. 

Let us always be on our guard. Soyons toujours sur nos gardea. 

652. We may also give an order which is to be executed in the 
future ; as in, 

Plough to-morrow; Labourez demain ; 

but the verb does not change its form, and the adverb to-morrow has 
to show that the action of ploughing is not to take place now. 

653. Bat, if we wish the action of the verb to be performed before 
a certain time or fact which we specify ; as in, 

Have ploughed this field before my Ayez laboure ce champ avant mon 
return, retour, 

we thus express a wish or order which has to be performed or accom- 
plished at a future period. This form belongs also to the future; but, 
as it signifies that this act should be passed before another, (my 
return,) this future would be the future past of the imperative. 

However, this last tense of the imperative mood is not considered 
by grammarians as an indispensable accessory of the imperative, and 
does not appear in the conjugation of verbs. We mention it here only 
as a natural consequence of an operation of the mind which may 
render its use necessary. 

654. Neither of these two forms of the imperative has a first person 
in the singular, because, generally, man does command or order him- 
self. We do what we have in view without proffering the order, or 
if we do it, as in this phrase, 

Keep up thy courage, my friend, Prends courage, mon ami, 

25* 



294 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

which is sometimes used in speaking to one's self, we use the second 
person singular, because the mind divides him who speaks into two 
persons, one of whom addresses the other. It should be remarked, 
that a verb in the imperative mood, being naturally deprived of a nom- 
inative, cannot be used in the third person singular and plural. These 
two persons belong to the subjunctive mood, and always suppose the 
fact of another verb understood before them. 

OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. ' 

655. Sometimes the action expressed by the verb depends upon an 
idea expressed by a preceding verb, existing or understood in the sen- 
tence, whose signification should be the manifestation of a desire, fear, 
doubt, order, anxiety, wish, or any other expression showing that the 
mind is not in a positive state of affirmation ; as in, 

I wish he may plough. Je desire qu'il laboure. 

I feared that he might not plough in Je craignais qu'il ne labour&t pas a 

time. terns. 

I doubt if he comes. Je doute qu'il vienne. 

I order you to leave the premises. J'ordonne que vous quittiez les lieux, 

etc. 

All the forms which express this particular view of the mind belong 
to a mood called subjunctive, from the Latin word subjungere, which 
means to unite, with an idea of submission. 

Let us examine the different forms or tenses of this mood. 

When I say, 

I wish him to plough now, Je desire qu'il laboure dans ce mo- 

ment, 

I wish him to plough next week, Je desire qu'il laboure la semaine pro- 

chaine, 

the form, qu'il laboure, which is the same in either case, expresses a 
present in the first sentence, and a future in the second. To these 
two questions, 

Does he plough 1 Shall he plough 1 Laboure-t-il 1 Labourera-t-il 1 

the same answer may be made ; 

I doubt if he ploughs, or, if he shall Je doute qu'il laboure. 
plough. 

Therefore this form is altogether a present and a future, and we shall 
call it the Present and Future of the Subjunctive. 



VERB. 295 



OF THE IMPERFECT OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

656. We may say, 

I had doubted, I have doubted, I J'avais doute, j'ai doute, je doutai,je 
doubted, that he might plough. doutais, qu'il labourat. 

In either of these cases, the action of ploughing is past in regard to 
the moment when I speak, but it is simultaneous with that of doubt- 
ing ; it thus represents a past and a present in two different points of 
view, and at the same time, the dependence required by the subjunc- 
tive ; the tense used to express this situation of the mind, represented 
by the verb, ought, then, to be called the Imperfect of the Subjunctive, 
for the same reasons which have qualified the imperfect of the indic- 
ative. 

OF THE PRETERITE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

657. The preterite of the subjunctive expresses an action already 
past at the moment we speak, or an action in the future at that 
moment, but which the mind considers as being already past, when 
that expressed by the first verb takes place ; as in the following, 

It has been necessary that he should II a fallu qu'il ait laboure. 

plough. 

He shall not come to my house before II ne viendra pas chez moi qu'il n'ait 

he has ploughed. laboure. 

The first sentence expresses a definite past, entirely accomplished. 

In the second, although the action of ploughing is in the future, it 
will be past and completed at the time when the action of the first 
verb is performed ; this circumstance justifies the appellation of pret- 
erite given to this tense ; and on account of the dependence of the 
second verb in regard to the first, the tense which represents this situ- 
ation is called the Preterite of the Subjunctive. 

OF THE PLUPERFECT OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

658. They had feared that I might On avait craint que j'eusse labouri trop 
have ploughed too soon. tot. 

This sentence expresses, evidently, a pluperfect, according to what 
has been said when speaking of the indicative mood, because the fact 
of having ploughed too soon was past before the time when the fear 
was experienced. 

They wished that I might have plough- On desirerait que yeusse labouri avant 
ed before such a time. telle epoque. 



296 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

This phrase, which expresses a future in regard to the time when 
we speak, is a pluperfect in regard to the time spoken of; and the 
second verb being under the control of the first, this tense is named 
the Pluperfect of the Subjunctive. 

OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

659. When a verb expresses an action or a situation without refer- 
ence to time, number, and persons, that verb is said to be in the infin- 
itive mood. This denomination does not express in itself the meaning 
of the word, but it is authorized by usage and practice. 

To plough, to suffer, to render, Labourer, souffrir, rendre, 

signify, simply, to be ploughing, to be suffering, to be rendering, or to 
exist with the modification of ploughing, suffering, or rendering, with- 
out saying whether the action expressed by the verb is performed by 
me, or some other, by one or several, now, in the past, or the future ; 
these verbs are then said to be in the infinitive mood. 

Let us examine now what are the modifications or different forms 
of this mood. 

OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

660. The present participle is a modification of the infinitive mood, 
being deprived of number and persons, but always referring to the 
time present ; it expresses, like the verb, the fact of existence, modi- 
fied by the meaning of the verb. 

Ploughing, Labourant, 

signifies, existing in performing the act of ploughing. This tense, 
joined to the verb to be, serves to decompose, and express the action 
contained in the verb itself; it is invariably terminated in ant, and 
expresses always the idea of simultaneousness with the epoch spoken 
of, and for this reason is called the Present Participle. The appella- 
tion participle comes from the fact that it participates with the verb 
to be in expressing the action of all the verbs. 

OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 

661. The past participle is a modification of the infinitive mood, 
having no persons, expressing no action, but a situation. 

Ploughed, Laboure, 

signifies, existing with the modification of being ploughed. 






VERB. 297 

The past participle, with the verbs to have and to be, forms the 
compound tenses of all the verbs ; it always expresses a relation 
anterior to the time present, and for that reason is called the Past Par- 
ticiple. 

With the verb to have it shows the action of the subject, and with 
the verb to be its situation ; and in this latter case agrees with it in 
number and gender. 

The termination of this tense varies considerably, according to the 
different conjugations, and the fact of the verb being regular or 
irregular. 

The rules which establish its agreement with its nominative and 
direct object constitute the most difficult part of our language. We 
shall, hereafter, explain them, so as not to leave any embarrassment 
in the mind of the student. 



RECAPITULATION OF ALL THE MOODS AND TENSES. 

662. Let us now recapitulate, in a few words, what we have said 
at some length, of the different moods of the verb. 

Infinitive. 

This mood expresses simply the fact of existing, with a specified 
modification. 

It has three forms or tenses : 
The Present of the Infinitive. 
The Present Participle. 
The Past Participle. 

Indicative. 

This mood has for its distinct characteristic, to affirm in a positive 
and absolute manner. 

It has eight forms or tenses : 

The Present. 

The Imperfect. 

The Preterite Definite. 

The Preterite Indefinite. 

The Pluperfect. 

The Preterite Anterior. 

The Future Present or Absolute. 

The Future Past. 



298 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Conditional. 

This mood affirms, but on a condition expressed or understood. 

Its principal forms or tenses are two in number : 

The Conditional Present. 

The Conditional Past. 

Imperative. 

This mood expresses order or demand ; it is applicable to the 
present and future, and has but one form or tense : 
The Imperative Present. 

Subjunctive. 

This mood expresses fear, doubt, anxiety, wish, order, and is 
always under the control of another verb, which precedes it, expressed 
or understood ; it is also always preceded either by que or one of the 
relative pronouns in all its tenses and persons. 

These tenses or forms are four in number : 

The Present ; 
The Imperfect ; 
The Preterite ; 
The Pluperfect. 

The verb, instead of being affirmative, might be interrogative, thus 
answering to the wants of the mind when any question is to be 
asked. 

Under this form, the verb has but two moods, the Indicative and 
Conditional, and may be expressed under ten different forms or 
tenses, which belong to these two moods. 



OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS, IN REFERENCE TO THEIR FORMS. 

663. The verbs, in regard to the manner in which they are 
employed with their tenses and persons, are divided into three 



Regular Verbs ; 
Irregular Verbs ; 
Defective Verbs. 

Regular verbs are those whose terminations in their different tenses 
and persons, primitive or derivative, are like those of the verb which 
is used as a model. 



VERB. 299 

The irregular verbs are those whose terminations do not conform to 
those of the standard verbs in all the tenses and persons. 

Defective verbs are those which are deficient in some of their tenses 
and persons. 



OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS, DJ REFERENCE TO THEIR FUNC- 
TIONS IN THE LANGUAGE. 

664. The verbs, in regard to their functions in the language, are 
divided into six distinct classes : 

1st. The Auxiliaries to have and to be, which are used to form the 
compound tenses of all the verbs, including themselves. 
2d. The Active Verbs. 
3d. The Passive Verbs. 
4th. The Neuter Verbs. 
5th. The Reflected Verbs. 
6th. The Impersonal Verbs. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

665. The auxiliary verbs are, to have and to be, avoir and etre. 
They are called auxiliary from the Latin word auxilium, which means 
succor, help ; because they serve to conjugate all the verbs in their 
compound tenses. 

ACTIVE VERBS. 

666. Active verbs are those which have a direct object ; as, aimer, 
to love ; lire, to read ; ecrire, to write. They are known to be active, 
because they may be followed by the words somebody or something, 
quelqiCun or quelque chose, without the assistance of a preposition ; 
thus, we may say, 

To love something or somebody; to Aimer quelqu'un ou quelque chose ; lire 
read something, to write something. quelque chose, ecrire quelque chose. 

The verb avoir, to have, when not employed as an auxiliary, but 
expressing possession, is an active verb ; as in, 

I have a book; I have, what 1 a book. J'ai un livre; j'ai, quoi * un livre. 

PASSIVE VERBS. 

667. Passive verbs are those whose action is applied or felt by the 
subject ; as in, 

I am loved, he is burned, we are Je suis aime, il est bride, nous sommes 
beaten. battus. 



300 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



In these sentences, the subject does not act, but is acted upon by the 
verb. Passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. 

All the active verbs may be conjugated in the passive form, but the 
neuter verbs cannot. 



NEUTER VERBS. 



668. Neuter verbs are those which have no direct object, that is to 
say, after which the words somebody or something cannot be placed, 
without these words being preceded by a preposition ; as in, 

We must obey the laws of our country. II faut obeir aux his de son pays. 
You must obey your father. Vous devez obeir a voire pere. 

The same remark applies to the following verbs : 



Togo, 


Aller, 


To speak ill (of,) 


Medire, 


To fall, 


Tomber 



because we cannot say, 

To go somebody, speak ill somebody, Aller quelqu'un or quelque chose, midire 
fall something. quelqu'un or quelque chose, tomber 

quelqu'un or quelque chose. 

669. Remark. There are a great number of verbs which are active 
in speaking of things and neuter in speaking of persons, that is to 
say, after which a noun of things can be used without being preceded 
by a preposition, whilst a noun of person cannot. These verbs 
require particular attention, because, whilst they can be used pas- 
sively in speaking of things, they cannot when speaking of persons ; 
let us take, for example, the verb to tell, dire; the English expression, 

I was told that your father was dead, 

cannot be used passively in French, because the verb dire is not active, 
speaking of persons ; for we do not say, to tell a person, but to tell to 
a person; the sentence should, then, be inverted, as, they told to me that 
your father, &c, and rendered by, 

On m'a dit que votre pere etait mort. 

The same mode of reasoning should be applied to all the verbs ; 
therefore, before translating a passive verb by the passive form in 
French, it must be ascertained whether, in that particular case, the 
verb could be used actively. If it can, the passive form may be used ; 



VERB. 301 

if it cannot, the construction should be changed, and the verb to have 
should be used instead of the verb to be. When speaking of the rela- 
tion existing between the verb and its objects, we shall enter into 
more particular explanations on this subject. 

OF REFLECTED VERES. 

670. Reflected verbs are those which are conjugated with two per- 
sonal pronouns of the same person, one nominative, and the other 
objective. They are called reflected, because the nominative receives 
the action of the verb, or, in other words, the action of the verb 
reflects upon the nominative ; as in, 

I flatter myself, he flatters himself, &c. Je me flatte, il se flatte, &c. 

In je me flatte, je is the subject who flatters, me is the object or 
person flattered ; therefore, the one who flatters, and he who receives 
flattery, being the same person, the action of the verb returns or 
reflects upon him who acts, or upon the nominative, and the verb is 
thus made reflected. 

671. In reflected verbs, the objective pronoun is sometimes the 
direct and sometimes the indirect object of the verb ; in this sentence, 

I love myself, Je m'aime, or J'aime moi, 

me or moi is the direct object of the verb ; but, in the following : 

I say to myself, Je me dis, or Je dis a moi, 

me or d, moi is the indirect object, and should be preceded by a prepo- 
sition, to receive the action of the verb. 

672. There are two sorts of reflected verbs : 1st. Those which are 
never conjugated, or used, without two pronouns of the same person 
preceding the verb ; as in, 

I repent, I mock, &c, Je me repens, Je me moque, etc.; 

we could not say, je repens, je moque, &c. 

Those which are sometimes conjugated with one and sometimes 
with two pronouns of the same persons, according to the idea we have 
to express ; as in, 

I praise myself, Je me loue, 

I burn myself, Je me brule, 

because we may say, in other cases, je hue, je brule. 
26 



302 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

(A list containing the reflected verbs of the first class will be found 
at the end of the grammar.) 

673. Remark. Reflected verbs are invariably conjugated in French 
with the auxiliary verb to be, etre. This is an oddity which can only 
be accounted for by the meaning of the verb itself; for, when we say, 
we have avenged ourselves, we express the fact that we have been 
avenged; by whom"? by ourselves; hence, very likely, arises the use 
of the verb to be in such verbs ; but, the preposition by being sup- 
pressed, it becomes impossible to parse those verbs with the verb 
to be; it would, then, perhaps, be better to take this fact of the 
reflected verbs being conjugated with the auxiliary to be, for one of 
those idiomatical oddities which are to be found in every language, 
which custom and time have sanctioned, and which should be respected 
and observed, without attempting either to explain or legitimate 
them. However, foreigners should pay particular attention to this fact, 
which, being in opposition to their own habits, exposes them to 
repeated mistakes when they are compelled to make use of a reflected 
verb. 

OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 

674. Reciprocal verbs are those which are used to express a recip- 
rocal action between two or more persons. We have explained the 
mechanism of those verbs when speaking of the reciprocal pronouns ; 
and we refer the student to that part of our grammar. 

OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

675. Impersonal verbs are those which, in their conjugation, admit 
only the third person singular of each tense ; as, 

It rains it snows, it is necessary, &c. II pleut, il neige, il est necessaire. 

The verb there to be, in English, admits of the two third persons, 
singular and plural ; but, in French, it follows the general rule, and 
is only used in the third person singular. 



OF CONJUGATIONS. 



676. The word conjugation comes from the Latin conjugation 

which means union, junction, coupling together under the same yoke. 

To conjugate a verb is to recite it with all its tenses, persons, and 



VERB. 303 

numbers ; that is to say, to repeat it, with all the modifications pro- 
duced by moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

We have already examined and explained all that relates to the 
tenses and moods ; let us see now what we understand by persons 
and numbers. 



OF PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

677. There are three persons in the verb : 

The first is that who speaks ; 

The second is that who is spoken to ; 

The third is that who is spoken of. 

As we have seen, under the article personal pronouns nominative, 
the pronouns of the first person are, je in the singular, and nous in the 
plural : thus, when we say,je park, I speak, there is but one person 
who speaks ; when we say, nous parlous, there are several persons 
speaking. 

The pronoun of the second person is tu in the singular, and vous 
in the plural ; but usage and politeness require generally the use of 
these two pronouns in the singular ; thus, addressing a single person, 
we say, tu paries, or vous parlez; addressing several, vous parlez. 

The pronouns of the third person are il and elle in the singular, 
Us and elles in the plural ; thus, speaking of one person, we say, il or 
elle parle, he or she speaks ; and of several, Us or elles parlent, they 
speak. 

Names of things or persons are all in the third person, singular or 
plural ; as, 

The sun shines. Le soleil brille. 

Men are good. Les hommes sont bons. 

Napoleon was great. Napoleon etait grand. 

Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plural. What we 
have just said of persons renders further explanation unnecessary. 



OF DIFFERENT SORTS OF CONJUGATIONS. 

678. We have, in French, four conjugations distinguished from 
each other by the difference in the termination of the present tense of 
their infinitive. 



304 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



The first conjugation has its infinitive terminating in er; as, aimer, 
to love, parler, to speak. 

The second conjugation has its infinitive ending in ir ; as, finir, to 
finish, mourir, to die. 

The third conjugation has its infinitive terminating in oir ; as, rece- 
voir, to receive, vouloir, to be willing. 

The fourth conjugation has its infinitive ending in re; as, rendre, 
to render, prendre, to take, boire, to drink. 

The four conjugations include all the French verbs in their com- 
pass. Grammarians are at great variance as to the classification of 
verbs in conjugations ; although they cannot find any other termina- 
tions than these four, some pretend, in order to facilitate the study of 
verbs, that they ought to divide them into as many conjugations as 
there are groups of them which may be conjugated alike, and call 
them regular, reducing thus the number of the irregular verbs almost 
to nothing 

Some do not go so far, and admit as regular those only which, by 
their number, may form separate classes, leaving thus a larger num- 
ber irregular. 

But these different systems, after all, are of no assistance to the 
student ; on the contrary, they produce a confusion in his mind. 
Having a great number of classes of regular verbs with the same ter- 
mination, he is at a loss to remember to which class any particular 
verb may belong ; therefore, we will preserve the old plan, and admit 
only four conjugations ; take a verb as a model in each one ; call 
regular all those which are conjugated alike in all tenses and persons, 
and irregular, those which differ from them. 

In order to facilitate the study of the conjugations, we shall place 
at the end of this grammar the models of each one, with its modifica- 
tions in form, as well as a complete table of all the irregular verbs, 
conjugated in full with all their tenses and persons. 



OF MIDDLE VERBS. 



679. Now that we have shown the verb in all its phases of regular- 
ity and irregularity ; in its different forms, affirmative, negative, and 
interrogative ; in its four conditions, active and passive, reflective and 
reciprocal ; it becomes necessary to explain a peculiar property of a 
certain number of them, that of being used sometimes actively and 
sometimes passively, with or without the same auxiliary verb to have. 



VERB. 305 

These verbs are called Middle Verbs, from the Greek, which admits 
of three voices, active, passive, and middle; the last of which is so 
called because it partakes of the two others. 

The knowledge of these verbs is of great importance to foreigners, 
who have no indications to understand their meaning without it. We 
shall give here a list of those which are of general use in the 
language. 

ACTIVE MEANING, PASSIVE MEANING. 

Accroltre. 
To increase. To augment. 

He has much increased his fortune. His fortune augments every day. 

II a beaucoup accru sa fortune. Sa fortune accroit tous les jours. 

Arreter. 
To arrest. To stop. 

We must arrest this man. We stopped at Boston. 

II faut arreter cet homme. Nous arretames a Boston. 



To increase. To augment. 

He increases his income every day. His income augments every day. 

II augmente son revenu tous les jours. Son revenu augmente tous les joura. 

Baisser. 
To let down. To fall. 

They let down the curtain at ten The stock begins to fall. 

o'clock. 
On baissa le rideau a dix heures. Les actions commencent a baisser. 

Battre. 
To beat. To beat. 

He beats the drum. The drum was beating. 

II bat la caisse. Le tambour battait. 

Blanchir. 
To whiten. To grow white. 

This paste whitens the skin. A fool's head never grows white. 

Cette pate blanchit la peau. Une tete de fou ne blanchit jamais. 

Bruler. 
To burn. To be burning. 

Formerly they used to burn the dead. One could see the ship burning. 
Autrefois on brulait les morts. On pouvait voir le vaisseau bruler. 

Casser. 

To break. To break. 

The fatigues of war have broken his In the midst of the operation the rope 

constitution very much. broke. 

Les fatigues de la guerre l'ont beaucoup Au milieu de l'operation la corde 

casse. cassa. 
26* 



306 FRENCH GRAMMAR, 

Changer. 
To change. To change. 

This storm will change the weather. Fashion changes from day to day. 
Cet orage changera le temps. Les modes changent de jour en jour. 

Chauffer. 
To heat. To be heated. 

While they heat the bath. While the bath is heating. 

Pendant qu'on chauffera le bain. Pendant que le bain chauffera. 



Commencer. 
To begin. To begin. 

We must begin the day well. The day did not begin successfully. 

II faut bien commencer la journee. Le jour n'a pas commence heureuse- 

ment. 

Continuer. 
To continue. To last. 

He has continued his inquiries. If the war lasts, we are lost. 

II a continue ses recherches. Si la guerre continue nous sommes per- 

dus. 

Coucher. 
To put to bed. To sleep. 

We must put this child to bed. We slept at the house of a friend. 

II faut coucher cet enfant. Nous couchames chez un ami. 

Descendre. 
Take down. To reach. 

You must take down this picture. Her hair reaches to her waist. 

Descendez ce tableau. Les cheveux lui descendent jusqu'a la 

ceinture. 

Diminuer. 
To impair. To lessen. 

His misfortunes have impaired his His credit lessens every day. 

credit. 
Ses malheurs ont diminue son credit. Son credit diminue tous les joura. 

Discontinuer. 

To stop. To cease. 

They stopped playing. War has not qeased for the last twenty 

years. 
lis discontinuerent le jeu. La guerre n'a pas discontinue depuis 

vingt ans. 

Doubler. 
To double. To be doubted. 

He has doubled his fortune in two His fortune has been doubled by trade . 

years. 
II a double sa fortune en deux ans, Sa fortune a double dans le commerce. 






VERB. 307 

Embellir. 
Embellish. To grow handsome. 

This fountain will embellish your gar- She grows handsome every day. 

den. 
Cette fontaine embellira votre jardin. Elle embellit tous les jours. 

Enlaidir. 

To disfigure. To grow ugly. 

The small-pox has disfigured her. This woman grows more and more 

ugly. 
Le petite verole l'a enlaidie. Cette femme enlaidit de plus en plus. 

Epaissir. 
To thicken. To thicken. 

Food thickens the blood. Preserves thicken by boiling. 

Les aliments epaississent le sang. Les confitures epaississent en cuisant. 

Etovffer. 
To suffocate. To be suffocated. 

The excessive heat suffocates our la- Our workmen are suffocated with the 

borers. heat. 

L'excessive chaleur etouffe nos ouv- Nos ouvriers etouffent de chaleur 
riers. 

Fermer. 
To shut. To shut. 

Take care to shut your door. This door does not shut well. 

Ayez soin de fermer votre porte. Cette porte ne ferme pas bien- 

Finir. 
To finish. To have an end. 

I shall soon finish this affair. This affair will have no end. 

Je fiairai bientut cette affaire. Cette affaire ne finira jamais. 

Fondre. 
To melt. To be melting. 

The heat melted all the wax. The snow is melting. 

La chaleur fondit toute la cire. La neige fond. 

Grossir. 
To swell. To swell. 

The rains have swelled the river. The river has swelled much. 

Les pluies ont grossi la riviere. La riviere a bien grossi. 

Guerir. 
To cure. To be cured. 

My physician has cured him perfectly. He is very sick, but he will soon be 

cured. 
Mon medecin l'a gueri parfaitement. II est tres malade, mais il guerira bien- 

tot. 



308 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Levei . 
To lift. To shoot. 

We cannot lift this heavy stone. Barley shoots sooner than wheat. 

Nous ne pouvons lever cette enorme L'orge leve plus tot que le bled, 
pierre. 

Loger. 
To lodge. To live. 

We cannot lodge three thousand men in We live near the palace. 

these barracks. 
Nous ne pouvons loger trois mille Nous logeons pres du palais. 
hommes dans cette caserne. 

Manquer. 
To miss. To be wanted. 

You have missed a fine opportunity. Provisions were wanted in the city. 

Vous avez manque une belle occasion. Les vivres manquaient dans la ville. 

Monter. 

To carry up. To amount. 

Carry up this furniture to my room. These sums amount to ten thousand 

dollars. 
Montez ces meubles dans ma chambre. Ces sommes montent a dix miile 

gourdes. 

Pendre. 
To hang. To hang. 

We have hung our raisins in the sun. The fruit which hangs from that tree. 
Nous avons pendu nos raisins au soleil. Les fruits qui pendent a cet arbre. 

Peser. 
To weigh. To weigh. 

We must weigh this bale of cotton. This bale weighs two hundred pounds. 

II faut peser cette balle de coton. Cette balle pese deux cents livres. 

Prefer. 
To lend. To stretch. 

I shall lend you my carriage. That leather stretches like a glove. 
Je vous preterai ma voiture. Ce cuir pr&te comme un gant. 

Rafraichir. 
To refresh. To cool. 

We must refresh the wine. The wine will cool in water. 

II faut rafraichir le vin. Le vin rafraichit dans l'eau. 

Rajeunir. 
To make one appear younger. To grow younger. 

This wig makes you appear much This woman grows younger every day 

younger. 
Cette perruque vous rajeunit beaucoup. Cette femme rajeunit tous les iours. 



VERB. 



309 



Rcfroidir. 



To refresh. 
The rain has refreshed the air. 
La pluie a refroidi l'air. 



To cool. 



While the soup cools. 

Pendant que la soupe refroidira. 



Relever. 
To relieve. To recover. 

This inheritance has relieved his dis- To be just recovered of an illness. 

tresses. 
Cette succession a releve ses affaires. Relever de raaladie. 



To settle. 
Sleeping settles the complexion. 
La soniaieil repose le teint. 



Reposer. 

To lie. 
He lies on his bed. 
II repose sur son lit. 



Ressusciter. 
To resuscitate. To be resuscitated. 

Jesus Christ resuscitated Lazarus. Jesus Christ was resuscitated the third 

day. 
Jesus Christ ressuscita le troisieme 
jour. 



Jesus Christ ressuscita Lazare. 



To delay. 
Why delay this marriage T 

Pourquoi retarder ce mariage 1 



Retarder. 

To be delayed. 
This marriage is delayed from day to 

day. 
Ce mariage retarde de jour en jour. 



Rotir. 
To burn. To be scorching. 

The excessive beat has burnt the You are scorching under the sun. 

plants. 
L'excessive chaleur a roti les plantes. Vous rotissez au soleil. 



To fire. 
Tliey fired the guns at once. 
On tira le canon aussitut. 



Tirer. 

To be fired. 
The guns were fired at twelve. 
Le canon tira a midi. 



To turn. 
Vo'j will have to turn the wheel. 
Vous aurez a tourner la roue. 



Tourner. 

To turn. 
The earth turns around the sun. 
La terre tourne autour du soleil. 



To upset. 
This coachman will upset us. 
Ce cocher nous versera-. 



Verser. 

To upset. 
This coach will upset. 
Cette voiture versera. 



310 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Vieillir. 
To make one grow old. To grow old. 

Sorrow made him grow old very fast. He has grown old in business. 
Le chagrin l'a vieilli bien vlte. II a vieilli dans les affaires. 



OF A CHOICE BETWEEN THE AUXILIARY VERBS AVOIR AND ETRE. 

680. Active verbs are all conjugated with the auxiliary verb to 
have, avoir. Passive verbs are all conjugated with the auxiliary verb 
to be, etre. Some neuter verbs are always conjugated with to be, 
etre ; some with to have, while others are sometimes conjugated with 
the one and sometimes with the other, according to the sense of the 
sentence. There are, also, verbs which are sometimes active and 
sometimes neuter, and which, when neuter, are conjugated with 
either of the auxiliaries, according to their meaning. We shall give 
a list of all the neuter verbs which are conjugated with to be alone, 
and another, of those which can be conjugated with either auxiliary ; 
the neuter verbs which will not be found in these lists are those which 
are always conjugated with avoir alone. 



681. A LIST OF NEUTER VERBS WHICH ARE ALWAYS CONJUGATED 
WITH ETRE, TO BE. 



to succeed. 

to set out. 

to arise. 

to become again. 

to start again. 

to result. 

to fall again. 

to come back. 

to come. 

to fall. 

to come. 



Aller, 


to go._ 


Parvenir, 


Arriver, 


to arrive. 


Partir, 


Choir, 


to fall. 


Provenir, 


Deceder, 


to die. 


Redevenir, 


Devenir, 


to become. 


Repartir, 


Disconvenir, 


to disagree. 


Resulter, 


Echoir, 


to fall. 


Retomber, 


Eclore, 


to hatch. 


Revenir, 


Intervenir, 


to intervene. 


Survenir, 


Mesavenir, 


to come to any trouble. 


Tomber, 


Mourir, 


to die. 


Venir, 


Naitre, 


to be born. 





Examples. 



These children had gone into the prai- 
rie. 
You have arrived too early. 
She has fallen in going up stairs. 
These great men are all dead. 
Literary men have become rare. 



Ces enfants etaient alles dans la prai- 
rie. 

Vous etes arrive de trop bonne heure. 

Elle est chue en montant l'escalier. 

Ces grands hommes sont tous decedes. 

Les vrais litterateurs sont devenns 
rares. 



VERB. 311 

Your note will become due before your Votre billet sera echu avant votre re- 
return, tour. 
These eggs have hatched. Ces ceufs sont eclos. 
He has intervened in this affair. II est intervenu dans cette affaire. 
Their parents are dead. Leurs parents sont morts. 
Our misfortunes have arisen from our Nos malheurs sont nes de nos dissen- 

quarrels. sions. 

When he went into the country, I came Quand ilfut parti pour la campagne, je 

home. revins chez moi. 

How many people have obtained situa- Que de gens sont parvenus a des em- 

tions which they do not deserve ! plois qu'ils ne meritent pas ! 

Has his error arisen from his igno- L'erreur dans laquelle il est tom.be serait 

ranee 1 elle provenue de son ignorance 1 

They have started again for the coun- Ik sont repartis pour la campagne. 

try. 

Great misfortunes have resulted from II en est resulte de grands malheurs. 

it. 

Your children would have come back Vos enfants seraient revenus avec nous. 

with us. 

This news has arrived just now. Cette nouvelle est survenue a l'instant. 

I doubt if the thunderbolt has reached Je doute que le tonnere soit tombe. 

the ground. 

They came to implore my clemency. lis sont venus implorer ma clemence. 

Remark. It should be remarked that the neuter verbs which are 
conjugated with to be alone, express either an idea of motion or rest. 



A LIST OF NEUTER VERBS WHICH ARE SOMETIMES CONJUGATED 
WITH AVOIR AND SOMETIMES WITH E*TRE, EITHER ACCORDING 
TO CUSTOM OR TO THE MEANING OF THE SENTENCE IN WHICH 
THEY ARE USED. 

682. Accourir, to run to. 

I heard of his misfortune, and ran to his J'ai entendu parler de ses malheurs, et 
assistance. j'ai, or je suis, account a son aide. 

(Custom.) 

Apparditre, to appear. 

The spirit of the great Hector has ap- L'ombre du grand Hector nous est ap- 
peared to us. parue, or nous a apparu. (Custom.) 

Convenir, to suit, to fit. 

This house would have suited him very Cette maison lui aurait parfaitement 
well. convenu. (Custom.) 

Convenir, to agree, to settle. 

We have agreed upon, or settled, the Nous sommes convenus du prix de ce 
price of this horse. cheval. (Custom.) 



312 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Crottre, to grow. 

This child has grown much during his Cet enfant a beaacoup cru durant sa 
sickness. maladie. (Active meaning.) 

Crottre, to be grown. 

This plant is prodigiously grown. Cette plante est prodigieusement crue, 

(Situation.) 

Courir, to run. 

The soldiers ran to their general. Les soldats ont couru vers leur general. 

(Action.) 
This preacher is much run after. Ce pretre est fort couru. (Situation.) 

Deborder, to overflow. 

The river has overflowed during the La riviere a deborde pendant la nuit. 

night. (Action.) 

How is the river % It has overflowed Comment est la riviere 1 Elle est de- 
its banks. bordee. (Situation.) 

Dechoir, to decline, to fall. 

Since his father's death, he gradually Depuis la mort de son pere, il a dechu 

fell every day. de jour en jour. (Action.) 

He has fallen very low in the public II est fort dechu dans 1'estime du pub- 
esteem, lie. (Situation.) 

Decroltre, to decrease, to fall. 

The water has much decreased since Les eaux ont beaucoup decru depuis la 

the drought. secheresse. (Action.) 

The river has fallen two inches. La riviere est decrue de deux pouces. 

(Situation.) 

Demeurer and r ester, to remain or to live in a place. 

He remained in Paris, Il est reste, or demeure, a Paris, 

signifies that the person spoken of is still now in Paris. (Situation.) 
II a reste, or demeure, a Paris, 

signifies that the person spoken of has lived in Paris, but is no longer 
there. (Action.) 

Echapper, to avoid, not to be heard, not to be perceived, not to be 
understood. 

He has escaped (avoided) death. II a e"chappe a la mort. (Action) 

What you have just said has escaped Ce que vous venez de dire m'a 6chapp6 . 
me. (Action.) 



VERB. 313 

This fault has not been perceived by Cette faute a echappe d Voltaire. (Ac- 
Voltaire, tion.) 

Echapper, to run away, to escape from, to slip. 

The stag has escaped the dogs. Le cerf est echappe des chiens. (Situa- 

tion.) 
I had forgotten that name. Ce nom rrCetait echappd. (Action.) 

Racine made this fault through mis- Cette faute est echappee a Racine, 
take. (Action.) 

Expirer, to expire, to be out. 

My lease was out, or expired, yesterday. Mon bail a expire hier. (Action.) 
The truce has expired since yesterday. La treve est expiree depuis hier. (Sit- 



uation.) 



Grandir, to grow, to be grown. 



How he has grown since I saw him ! Comme il a grandi depuis que je ne 

l'ai vu ! (Action.) 
How tall she has grown ! Comme elle est grandie ! (Situation.) 

Perir, to perish, to be no more. 

They perished during the storm. lis ont peri pendant la tempGte. (Ac- 

tion.) 
What has become of all your children % 

They are all dead and gone. lis sont tous peris. (Situation.) 



6S3. A LIST OF NEUTER VERBS WHICH SOMETIMES HAVE AN ACTIVE 
MEANING. 

Aborder, (active meaning,) to come near, up with, to ; to board, to 
accost, to charge, to handle, to hint at. 

To come up with a ship. Aborder un vaisseau. 

To board an enemy's ship. Aborder un vaisseau ennemi. 

He came up to me, or accosted me, II m'a abordi tres cavalidrement. 

very boldly. 

To handle, or hint at, a question. Aborder une question, &c. 

Aborder, (neuter meaning.) 

Our ships have disembarked at Havre. Nos vaisseaux ont abordi au Havre. 

(Action.) 
When our ship had reached the shore, Quand le vaisseau fut ahordi, nous 
we landed and started for Paris. debarquames et nous partimes pour 

Paris. (Situation.) 
27 



314 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Accoucher, (active meaning,) to deliver a woman. 

This physician has delivered several Ce medecin a accouche plusieurs dames 
ladies of my acquaintance. de ma connaissance. 

Accoucher, (neuter meaning,) to lie in, to be delivered. 

This lady has been successfully deliv- Cette femme a accouche heureusement. 

ered. (Action.) 

She has been delivered of a fine boy. Elle est accouche, d'un beau garcon. 

(Situation.) 

Accroitre, (active meaning,) to increase, to enlarge. 

He thinks of nothing but the means of II ne songe qu'aux moyens d' accroitre 
increasing his authority. son autorite. 

Accroitre, (neuter meaning,) to increase, to augment. 

His fortune has much increased these Sa fortune a beaucoup accru, depuis deux 

two years. ans. (Action.) 

Their pride had increased with their Leur orgueil etait accru par leur puis- 

power. sance. (Situation.) 

Baisser, (active meaning,) to let down, to lower. 
Let down the glasses of the carriage. Baissez les glaces de la voiture. 

Baisser, (neuter meaning,) to fall. 

The river has fallen a foot. La riviere a, or est, baissee d'un pied. 

With avoir, this verb expresses the action of falling ; with etre, it 
expresses the situation of the river after its fall. 

Cesser, (active meaning.) to leave off, to discontinue, &c. 

He left off his work on account of his II a cesse son travail a cause de ses 
eyes. yeux. 

Cesser, (neuter meaning,) to be over, to cease. 

The rain is over, (meaning that it has II a cesse de pleuvoir. (Action.) 

ceased raining for the present.) 
The rain is over, (meaning that the La pluie est cessie. (Situation.) 

rain is entirely over.) 

Changer, (active meaning,) to change, to exchange, to barter, to 
alter, &c. 

He has changed, exchanged, or bar- II a change sa. vieille vaisselle contrede 
tered, his old plate for new. la neuve. 



VERB. 315 

Changer, (neuter meaning,) to change, to be altered or improved, 
&c. 

Fashions have much changed for the Les modes ont bien change depuis 

last twenty years. vingt ans. (Action.) 

This young man is much altered since Ce jeune homme est bien change depuis 

his return from the continent. son retour du continent. (Situation.) 

Cornmencer, (active meaning,) to begin. 

The French government has begun the Le gouvernement Francais a commence 
fortifications of Paris. les fortifications de Paris. 

Cornmencer, (neuter meaning,) to commence, to begin. 

The fair began on the first of January. La foire a commence le premier Janvier. 

(Action.) 
The fair has already commenced. La foire est commenpee. (Situation.) 

Descendre, (active meaning,) to take, to bring, or to let, down. 

Take that picture down. Descendez ce tableau. 

Descendre, (neuter meaning,) to descend, to go down, &c. 

You went down too fast. Vous avez descendu trop vite. (Action.) 

Is your father up stairs 1 No; he has Votre pere, est-il en haut 1 Non; il est 
come down. descendu. (Situation.) 

The verb redescendre, to come down again, follows the same rule 
as descendre. 

Dirninuer, (active meaning,) to diminish, to lessen, &c. 

I am compelled to lessen my expenses. Je suis oblige de dirninuer mes de- 

penses. 

Dirninuer, (neuter meaning,) to abate, to decrease, &c. 

The fever has much abated since yes- La fievre a beaucoup diminue depuis 

terday. hier. (Action.) 

How short the days are now ! Comme les jours sont diminues mainte- 

nant ! (Situation.) 

Echouer, (active meaning,) to run aground. 

When the captain saw his ship was Quand le capitaine vit que son navire 
leaking, he ran her aground on the faisait eau, il Vechoua sur la cote, 
coast 

Echouer, (neuter meaning,) to fail, to miscarry, &c. 

All my projects have failed. Tous mes projets ont echoue". 

Where i3 your vessel 1 It is aground Ou est votre vaisseau 1 II est ichoui 
in the strait. dans la passe. 



316 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Emhellir, (active meaning,) to beautify, to embellish, &c. 

This cosmetic embellishes the com- Cette eau embellit le teint. 
plexion. 

Emhellir, (neuter meaning,) to grow handsome. 

She has grown much handsomer since Elle a beaucoup embelli depuis que nous 

we have seen her. ne l'avons vue. (Action.) 

How handsome she is now ! Comme elle est embellie ! (Situation.) 

Entrer and Rentrer, (active meaning,) to take in, to get in, &c. 

Take these casks into the cellar. Entrez ces barriques dans la cave. 

(Not much used.) 
This is the season for getting in the hay. Voici le moment de rentrer les foins. 

Entrer and Rentrer, (neuter meaning,) to enter, to come in, to 
come in again. 

I entered the room, and found my Je suis entre dans la chambre, et j'ai 

mother in tears. v trouve ma mere en pleurs. 

At what o'clock did you come in last A quelle heure etes vous rentre hier 
night 1 I came in at ten o'clock. 6oir 1 Je suis rentre a dix heures. 

Sortir, to go out, and Ressortir, to go out again, follow the same 
rule as entrer and rentrer. They are not used with avoir in their 
neuter meaning. 

Monter, (active meaning,) to carry up, to lift up, &c. ; to wind 
up, &c. 

Carry up all this into my room. Montez tout cela dans ma chambre. 

Did you wind up your watch last night 1 Avez-vous monte votre montre hier 

soir 1 

Monter, (neuter meaning,) to go up, to be up. 

He went up to his room four times II a monte quatre fois a sa chambre 
during the course of the day. pendant la journee. (Action.) 

Is your father up in his room! At Votre pere, est-il monte . dans sa cham- 
what o'clock did he go up 1 bre 1 (Situation.) A quelle heure 

y a-t-il monte? (Action.) 

Remonter, to carry up, to lift up again, to go up, to be up again, 
follows the same rule as monter. 
Passer, (active meaning,) to pass, to go over, to cross, &c. 

We went over the river in a very small Nous avons passe la riviere dans un 
boat. tres petit bateau. 

This verb is active in many other meanings; see a good dictionary. 



VERB. 317 

Passer, (neuter meaning,) to pass ; to come, or to go, through, by, 
or over, &c. 

The crown of Spain has passed to the La couronne d'Espagne a passe a la 

Bourbon family. maison de Bourbon. 

The army passed by here. L'armee a passe par ici. (Action.) 

The army is gone by. L'armee est passee. (Situation.) 

Our fine days are gone by. Nos beaux jours sont passes. (Situa- 

tion.) 

See a good dictionary for the other cases in which passer has a neuter 
meaning. 

Repasser. This verb follows the same rule as passer. 

Retourner, (active meaning,) to turn, to turn up. 

I must have my coat turned. II faut que je fasse retourner mon habit 

It is time now to turn hay. II est temps de retourner le foin. 

Retourner, (neuter meaning,) to return, to go back ; to turn up. 

My father has returned home. Mon pere est retourne' dans son pays. 

(Situation.) 
What have you turned up 1 Qu'auez-vous retourne? 

I have turned up diamond. i'ai retourne carreau. (Action.) 

Rajeunir, (active meaning,) to make young. 

Your wig makes you look twenty years Votre perruque vous rajeunit de vingt 
younger. ans. 

Rajeunir, (neuter meaning,) to grow young again. 

You have grown much younger since Vous avez beaucoup rajeuni depuis que 
we saw you last. nous ne vous avons vu. (Action.) 

You look twenty years younger with Vous etes rajeunie de vingt ans avec 
your new set of teeth. votre nouveau ratelier. (Situation.) 

Sonner, (active meaning,) to ring, to sound, &c. 

I rang for the chamber-maid, but she J'az sonne la femme de chambre, mais 

has not come. elle n'est pas venue. 

The trumpets sounded the charge, but Les trompettes sonnerent la charge, 

the troops did not move. mais les troupes ne bougerent pas. 

Sonner, (neuter meaning,) to ring, to sound, &c. 

The bell has rung for service at the Le service a sonne a la cathedrale. 

cathedral. (Action.) 

It was after three o'clock when we sat Trois heures etaient sonnies quand nous 

at the table. nous mimes a table. (Situation.) 

This sentence sounded well. Cette phrase a bien sonne. (Action.) 

The dinner has rung. Le diner a sonne, &c. 

(See a dictionary.) 

27* 



3 IS FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Vieillir, to make old, or to grow old, follows the same rule as 
rajeunir. 

Remark. It should be remarked, that, among the neuter verbs 
which are conjugated with either of the auxiliaries, avoir is employed 
whenever the verb expresses an action, whilst etre is used when it 
implies the idea of a situation. 



QUESTIONS 



645. What is the signification of the word mood? 

645. How many moods are there in French 1 

646. What is the difference between personal and impersonal moods 1 
646. How many impersonal moods are there in French *? 

646. Can impersonal moods be used to express a proposition 1 

647. For what purpose is the indicative mood used in French 1 

647. Of how many tenses is the indicative mood composed, and which are 
they! 

648. What is the use of the conditional mood 1 

649. How many tenses are there in the conditional mood 1 
649. In what case is the conditional present used 1 

649. What is the signification of the conditional past 1 

650. Is the condition on which depends the fact denoted by the conditional 
mood always expressed 1 

651. What dictate of the mind is the imperative mood intended to obey 1 

651. How many tenses are there in the imperative mood 1 

652. Is this only tense used to give an order, or express a desire, to be exe- 
cuted now and in the future 1 

653. Although there is but one regular form to be used in the imperative 
mood, cannot a compound tense be employed so as to order that a command 
should be executed before something else has taken place 1 

654. How many persons are there in the imperative mood 1 

654. Is there any third person singular or plural in the imperative mood 1 

654. Are the persons used in this mood accompanied by personal pronouns 
as their nominatives 1 

655. If a sentence is composed of two propositions and the first verb ex- 
presses an emotion of the soul, or if the idea expressed by the whole is that of 
a doubt, what mood is used in French to transmit that state of the mind 1 

655. What circumstance, past, present, or future, does the present of the 
subjunctive express 1 

656. For what purpose is the imperfect of the subjunctive used 1 

657. Does the preterite of the subjunctive express a past, a present, or a 
future 1 

658. When is the pluperfect of the subjunctive used % 

659. What do we mean when we say that a verb is in the infinitive mood 1 

660. Why is the present participle so called 1 and what does it express 1 

660. Is this tense deprived of number and persons 1 

661. What is a past participle 1 Has it any persons, and what does it 
express 1 

661. What functions does the past participle perform in the conjugation of 
the verbs 1 and why is it called past participle? 

661. With what does the participle agree when it is conjugated with to be* 



VERB. 319 

661. Is there any regularity in the termination of past participles 1 

662. "What does the infinitive in<5od express, and how many tenses has it 1 
662. What does the indicative mood express, and how many tenses has it 1 
662. (Same question in reference to the conditional, imperative, and sub- 
junctive moods.) 

662. How many moods are there which can assume the interrogative form % 

663. How many classes of verbs are there in reference to the manner in 
which they are conjugated 1 

664. How many kinds of verbs are there in reference to their functions in 
languages 1 

665. What is die function of an auxiliary verb 1 

665. How many auxiliary verbs are there 1 

666. "What are active verbs, and what distinguishes them from others 1 

666. "With what auxiliary are they conjugated 1 

667. What is the character of a passive verb, and with what auxiliary is it 
conjugat 3d 1 

668. What is die character of a neuter verb 1 

669. Are there not many verbs which are active speaking of things aud 
neuter speaking of persons 1 • 

669. Can a verb after which a noun of persons cannot be used without a 
preposition, be used passively in French in speaking of persons 1 

669. When an English passive verb is to be translated into French, to what 
should a foreigner give attention before he uses it in the same form 1 

670. What is a reflected verb 1 When the nominative of a reflected verb is 
a pronoun, by what is it always preceded % 

671. Is the reflected pronoun always die direct or indirect object of the verb, 
or can it be either 1 

672. How many kinds of reflected verbs are there 1 

673. With what auxiliary are reflected verbs conjugated 1 

673. How can we account for the use of the verb to be in French, instead of 
the verb to have, in the conjugation of reflected verbs 1 

674. What do reciprocal verbs signify 1 (The teacher should refer here to 
what has been said in speaking of reciprocal pronouns, and ask the same ques- 
tions as have been put when examining the pupils on them.) 

675. What is an impersonal verb 1 Is an impersonal verb ever conjugated 
in French in the third person plural 1 

676. What is the meaning of die word conjugation applied to verbs 1 

677. How many persons are there in the conjugation of verbs 1 What are 
they, and what do they signify 1 

677. What are the pronouns of die first, second, and third persons singular 
and plural 1 

677. In what persons are nouns either singular or plural 1 

678. How many conjugations are there in French 1 What are the termina- 
tions in the four conjugations 1 

678. Are all the French verbs included in these four conjugations *? 

679. What are the characteristics of middle verbs 1 (The teacher should not 
request his pupils, except when they are far advanced, to know which verbs are 
called midti* ones; he should only advise them to read attentively those given as 
examples la the grammar, so as to understand their meaning. A good diction- 
ary and long practice are the only useful guides in this difficulty.) 

680. With what auxiliary are active verbs conjugated 1 
680. With what auxiliary are passive verbs conjugated *? 
680. With what auxiliary are neuter verbs conjugated 1 

680. Are there not some neuter verbs which are sometimes active and conju- 
gated with either auxiliary *? 

680. What should decide whether these verbs should be conjugated with 
avoir or etre? 

681. What are the neuter verbs which are always conjugated with etre? 
'The pupils should learn this list of verbs by heart.) 



320 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



681. What is the meaning of the neuter verbs which are only coniujjated 
with Stre? J S 

682. What are the neuter verbs which are sometimes conjugated with avoir 
and sometimes with etre'f (The pupils should learn these verbs by heart, as 
well as the preceding, and give an account of their different significations.) 

683. Are there not some neuter verbs which are sometimes used as active 
verbs 1 (Same remark as above.) 



OF THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 

684. We have seen that to affirm is the principal function of the 
verb. We call subject or nominative the word which represents the 
person or thing which performs the action of the verb, or is in the 
situation expressed by it. The attribute of the verb is the word 
which modifies the fact of existence expressed by the verb ; in other 
words, the subject expresses the person or thing about which we 
affirm something, and the attribute is the result of this affirmation. 

The subject is always represented by a noun or a pronoun, and the 
attribute by an adjective joined to a verb, or implied in that verb ; 
when we say virtue is amiable, the adjective amiable is joined to the 
verb to be, and this verb expresses the connection we wish to establish 
between virtue and the qualification of amiability ; but if we say, 
Pierre vit, Peter lives, the adjective is implied in the verb, vit, lives, 
since this verb signifies, est vivant, is living. 

This decomposition of the verb may be performed for all the verbs ; 
the only exception is in the verb etre, to be, when it does not signify 
exister, to exist, or to be existing. 

It is always very easy to find out what is the subject of a verb, by 
applying to that verb the question, qui est ce qui? who? the answer 
to the question is the nominative. When we say Pierre vit, Peter 
lives, if we ask, qui est-ce qui vit? who lives? the answer, Pierre, 
Peter, shows that Peter is the subject. 

PLACE OF THE SUBJECT OR NOMINATIVB OF THE VERB. 

685. The subject, whether a noun or a pronoun, is generally placed 
before the verb ; as in, 

We love reading. Nous aimons la lecture. 

Man is never pleased with his fate. L'homme n'est jamais content de son 

sort. 



VERB. 321 



PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES, WHEN THE NOMINA- 
TIVE IS A PRONOUN. 

686. In interrogative sentences, if the subject be a pronoun, it 
always goes after the verb ; as in, 

Will you give me this book 1 Voxxlez-vous me dormer ce livre 1 

Shall we go home to-morrow 1 Retournerons-?ious demain a la mai- 

son 1 

When the verb, in interrogative sentences, being followed by the 
pronouns il, elle, on, has for its last letter a vowel, in order to avoid a 
disagreeable sound which would be shocking to the ear, the letter t is 
placed between the verb and the pronoun ; as in, 

Does he arrive *? Shall she come 1 Do you like thieves 1 

Arrive-t-il 1 Viendra-t-elle 1 Aime-t-on les coquins 1 

The interrogation in the first person singular, being made by placing 
the pronoun je after the verb, produces, sometimes, such disagreeable 
sounds to the ear, that it becomes necessary to change the natural dis- 
position of the words ; thus, 

Do I sleep « Do I run « Do I lie 1 

Dors-je 1 Cours-je 1 Ments-je 1 



would be intolerable ; and we are compelled to say, 

Is it that I sleep 1 Is it that I run 1 Is it that I lie 1 

Est-ce que je dors 1 Est-ce que je cours 1 Est-ce que je ments 1 



PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES, WHEN THE NOMI- 
NATIVE IS A NOUN. 

687. 1st. Whenever an interrogative sentence does not begin with 
an interrogative adverb, such as how, when, how much, &c, or with 
an absolute pronoun, such as whom, what, which, or where, if the verb 
with which the interrogation is made has a noun for its nominative, 
the sentence should begin with that noun, and the verb should be fol- 
lowed by a personal pronoun of the same person, number and gender, 
as the noun used as a nominative ; as in, 

Will your father come to-morrow 1 Votre pere, viendra-t-il demain 1 

If the verb was used in one of the compound tenses, the personal 
pronoun should be placed after the auxiliary; as in, 

Has your father come to-day 1 Votre pe*re, est-il venu aujourd'bui 1 



222 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

688. 2d. When, the nominative of the verb being a noun, the 
sentence begins with an interrogative adverb or an absolute pronoun, 
the sentence can be constructed in two ways: If the verb has no 
object, and is not in any of the compound tenses, the noun used as a 
nominative can be placed either before or after the verb ; — if placed 
before, the verb should be followed by a personal nominative pronoun 
as above ; if placed after, the personal pronoun would become 
unnecessary ; as in, 

Ttri .„ r . „ $ Quand votre pere, viendra-t-z7 ? or. 

When will your father come 1 J ^ w vien( f ra votrepdre? 

689. 3d. But if the verb were in any of the compound tenses, or 
had an object after it, the noun used as its nominative should always 
precede it ; as in, 

When did your father come 1 Quand votre pere est-il venu 1 

How does your father like the music Comment votre pere, trouve-t-il la tnu- 
that I sent him 1 sique que je lui ai envoyee 1 

690. Remark. Although the verb has no object, if it was followed 
by an incidental proposition beginning with a relative pronoun having 
the nominative for its antecedent, that nominative should be placed 
after the verb, in order not to be separated from the relative pro- 
noun ; as in, 

How is this young officer now, whose Comment se porte maintenant ce jeune 
departure we have so much re- officier dont, nous avons tant regrette 
gretted 1 le depart 1 

691. General remark. We Would caution foreigners against a fault 
which is profusely spread through a work published in London by 
Olendorf, and reprinted in this country ; most of his interrogative sen- 
tences are constructed as follows : 

When will your father come ? Votre pere quand viendra-t-il 1 

placing the nominative before the interrogative adverb, which is never 
the case in French, unless the person who speaks wishes to call the 
attention to the person or thing he is going to mention, in which 
case, there should be a comma after the noun, and the voice should 
take such an inflection as to show that the question does not begin 
with the noun, but with the adverb following ; as, 

Votre pere, quand viendra-t-il *? 



VERB. 

meaning, 

I wish to speak of your father ; when will he come ! 
or. 

By the by, when will your father come 1 

PLACE OF THE N03nNATIVE IN A SENTENCE USED AS A QUOTATION". 

692. Whenever a verb is used in a quotation, its nominatitive, 
whether a noun or a pronoun, is invariably placed after it ; as in, 

Be happy, said he. Soyez heureux, dit-il. 

I die innocent, said Louis XVI., on the Je nieurs innocent, dit Louis XVI., sur 
scaffold. l'echaffaud. 



PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN A SENTENCE BEGINNING WITH A VERB IN THE 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

693. The nominative is still placed after the verb, when, expressing 
a wish, we make use of the subjunctive mood ; as in, 

May the people be convinced that there Puissent les peuples se convaincre qu'il 
is no greater scourge than a revolu- n"y a pas de plus grands fleaux que 
lion ! les revolutions ! 

And also, when the subjunctive is used to express quand me me, 
though, and a conditional ; as in. 

Though the universe should crumble at Diit Vunivers s'ecrouler a ses pieds, il 
his feet, he would not be moved. n'en serait pas emu. 

The natural construction of these two sentences should be, 

Je souhaite que tous les peuples soient convaincus, &c. 
Quand meme l'univers s'ecroulerait, Sec. 



But the other form is more energetic and animated. 



PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE WHERE THE VERB IS PRECEDED BT A RELATIVE 
PRONOUN WHICH HAS FOR ITS ANTECEDENT THE OBJECT OF THAT VERB. 

694. The nominative is still placed after the verb, when this verb 
is preceded by a relative pronoun having for its antecedent the object 
of that verb : as in. 

The news brought by the messenger La nouvelle yu'apporta It courier est 

was good. bonne. 

The man who was killed by your friend L'homme que tua votre ami 6tait mon 

was mv son. - fils. 



324 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It would not be considered as a fault of language to place the nomi- 
native before the verb in cases similar to these ; but harmony and 
elegance require the other construction. 

PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN IMPERSONAL SENTENCES. 

695. The nominative should also be placed after the verb, in imper- 
sonal sentences ; as in, 

A great calamity has happened to me. II m'est arrive un grand malheur. 

PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN SENTENCES EEGINNING WITH THE WORDS TEL, 
AINSI, TOUJOURS, AUSSI, PEUT-ETRE, ENCORE, EN VAIN, VAJNEMENT, DU 
MOINS, AND AU MOINS. 

696. Whenever a sentence begins either with tel, such, or ainsi, 
thus, the nominative of the verb, whether a noun or a pronoun, should 
be placed after it ; as in, 

Such was the fury of the soldiers that Telle etait la fureur du soldat que rien 

nothing could stop them. ne pouvait l'arreter. 

Thus ended this bloody affair. Ainsi fiiiit cette sanglante tragedie. 

This transposition of words, however, can only take place where 
the verb has no object. 

697. But when the sentence begins with any of the other adverbs, 
toujours, aussi, peut-etre, &c, if the verb has a pronoun for its nom- 
inative, that pronoun is generally placed after the verb, although this 
transposition is a mere matter of elegance ; but if the nominative be a 
noun, it should be placed before the verb, which then is generally fol- 
lowed by a personal pronoun of the same person, number, and gender, 
as the nominative ; as in, 

Perhaps he was right in acting as he Peut-etre eut-il raison d'ayir comme il 

did. le fit. 

If we were not offended, at least we Si nous ne fumes point offenses, du 
were much surprised at his conduct. moins fumes nous tres surpris de sa 

conduite. 
In vain did your friends advise you not En vain, or vainement, vos amis voua 
to trust that man. conseillerent-ils de ne pas vous tier 

a cet homme. 

This pronoun, however, may be omitted ; it is a matter of taste to 
use it or not. 

698. In fine, we must place the subject after the verb when that 
subject is followed by a number of words which belong to it. 

This exception to the general rule is sometimes absolute, and some- 
times a matter of taste. It is absolute when the words which belong 






VERB. 325 

to the subject form an incidental proposition, which, by its extent, 
would deter the mind from the connection existing between the verb 
and its subject, as in the following sentence : 

There, in the midst of prairies enara- La, au milieu de prairies emaillees de 

elled with flowers, are creeping, in fleurs, serpentent mille petits ruis- 

winding mazes, a thousand small seaux, qui distribuent partout une eau 

streams, whitti dispense everywhere pure et limpide. 
a pure and limpid water. 

Or when we wish to avoid a construction which would seem heavy 
and wanting in harmony ; as in, 

Did you see the sacrifice where the Vites-vous le sacrifice ou coula le sang 
blood of so many victims ran 1 de tant de victimes? 

The construction, ou le sang de tant de victimes coula, would be 
flat and deprived of harmony. 

This rule is a matter of taste when we wish to awake the attention 
on a subject by an unexpected and bold transition ; as in, 

In fine, to the honor of France, a man Enfin, pour l'honneur de la France, 

had been admitted in the govern- etait entre dans l'administration des 

ment, who was greater by his mind affaires publiques, un homme plus 

and virtues than by the honors con- grand encore par ses vertus et par son 

ferred on him. esprit que par ses dignites. 



AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE IN REFERENCE 
TO NUMBER. 

AGREEMENT OP THE VERB WITH A SINGLE NOUN. 

639. When a verb has only one noun for its nominative, it should 
always be of the same number as that noun, whether it is followed or 
preceded by it ; as in, 

Man was born to reign over the world. L'homme est ne pour regner sur le 

monde. 
Kings hold their rights from God, and Les rots tiennent leurs droits de Dieu, 
their power from the people. et leur puissance du peuple. 

Remark. A verb used in a personal mood should always have a 
nominative, and that nominative should always be expressed. There 
are, however, some few adverbial expressions in which the nominative 
can be elegantly omitted ; as in, 

It is better late than never. Vaut mieux tard que jamais. 

It is better to remain silent than to Vaut mieux se taire que mal parler. 
speak nonsense. 

28 



326 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL 
NOUNS UNITED BY AND, ET, OR NEITHER, NJ. 

700. Whenever a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the 
singular, and united by either of the conjunctions and or neither, et or 
ni, that verb is always used in the plural ; as in, 

Idleness and effeminacy will spoil the L'oisivete et la mollesse corrompent les 
best dispositions. plus beaux naturels. 

Neither gold nor riches can make us Ni for ni la richesse ne nous rendent 
happy. heureux. 

However, when the nominatives, being separated by the conjunc- 
tion ni, are considered as acting individually, and not conjointly, upon 
the verb, that verb should be used in the singular ; as in, 

Neither man nor beast has ever been Ni Vhomme ni aucun animal n'a pu se 

able to create himself. faire soi-meme. 

Neither of our hearts can be perfidious. Ni son cceur ni le mien ne pent £lre 

perfide. 

OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL 
NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO CONJUNCTION BETWEEN THEM. 

701. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns following 
each other without having any conjunction between them, that verb 
is used in the plural, if the nouns, having no similarity in their mean- 
ing, act conjointly upon the verb ; and in the singular, if they are 
either synonymous, or, expressing a gradation, act separately upon 
the verb ; as in, 

Years, disease, drunkenness, are said L'&ge, la maladie, Vivresse, changent, 

to change our natural disposition. dit-on, la caractere. 

At any period of our life, the love of Dans tous les ages de la vie, V amour du 

work and the taste for study are a travail, le gout de I'etude est un bien. 

real blessing. 

Louis, his son, the state, and Europe Louis, son fite, Vetat, VEurope, est en 

itself, are in your hands. vos mains. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL 
NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 

702. Whenever a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the 
singular separated by the conjunction or, ou, the verb is used in the 
singular, if the action which it expresses can be performed only by 
one of the nominatives ; and in the plural, if the several nominatives 
concur in the performance of that action ; as in, 

My father or my uncle shall be ap- Mon pere ou man oncle sera nomme am- 

pointed an ambassador. bassadeur. 

Ignorance or error can sometimes serve L'ignorance ou Verreur peuvent quelque- 

as an excuse to the wicked. fois servir d'excuse aux mechants. 



327 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN, HAVING FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL 
NOUNS, THEY ARE SUMMED UP BY ONE OF THE WORDS TOUT, ALL, RIEN, 
NOTHING, PERSONNE, NOBODY, ETC. 

703. When a verb, having for its nominatives several nouns in the 
singular or plural, is preceded by an expression which sums them up 
in one word, that verb is used in the singular; as in, 

Fortune, dignity, honors, all disappear Biens,dignites, honneurs, tout disparait 

in death. a la mort. 

Amusements, conversation, plays, no- Amusements, conversations, spectacles, 

tiling could divert him from his rien ne pouvait le distraire de sa 

grief. douleur. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL 
NOUNS QUALIFIED BY ONE OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS TOUT, CHAQUE, 
EVERY, QUELQUE, SOME OR ANY, AUCUN, NOT, NOT A, NOT ANY, ETC. 

704. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns modified 
by any of the indefinite pronouns tout, quelque, nul, aucun, and chaque, 
it is used in the singular, if the nominatives act separately, and in the 
plural, if they act conjointly, upon that verb ; as in, 

Each nation, each period of life, each Chaque nation, chaque &ge, chaque sexe, 

sex, has its peculiar tastes. a ses gouts particuliers. 

Every Christian, every good knight, Tout Chretien, tout digne chevalier, doit 

ought to sacrifice himself for his se sacrifier pour sa religion, 
religion. 

Even 7 night, every morning, brings us Chaque nuit, chaque aurore, nous ap- 

new proofs of the goodness and wis- portent de nouvelles preuves de la 

dom of Divine Providence. sagesse et de la bonte de la Provi- 
dence Divine. 

No regiment, no column, had been able- Aucun corps, aucune colonne, n'avaient 

to break through our square. pu enfoncer notre carre. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE ANY OF 
THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS L'UN ET £' AUTRE, EITHER OR BOTH, OR 
NI L'UN Nl L' AUTRE, NEITHER. 

705. (See what we have said when speaking of these two indefinite 
pronouns.) 

OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL 
NOUNS THE FIRST TWO OF WHICH ARE SEPARATED BY ANY OF THE 
EXPRESSIONS COMME, AINSI QUE, AVEC, DE m£mE QUE, ETC. 

706. Whenever a verb has for its nominatives several nouns the 
first two of which are separated by any of the expressions comme, 
ainsi que, avec, de rneme que, &c, it is necessary to examine whether 
those several expressions are only used to express a comparison, and 
signify as veil a%, or whether they serve to unite the several nomina- 



328 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

tives to make them act conjointly on the verb, and are used instead of 
and. In this latter case, they require the verb to be put in the plural ; 
in the former, on the contrary, the verb should agree with the first 
noun ; as in, 

The king means well, as well as his Le roi, aussi bienque ses ministres, vent 

ministers. le bien. 

His honesty, as well as his other high Son honnetete, autant que ses autres 

qualities, made him respectable. grandes qualites, hfaisait respecter. 

Gengis, the Arabs, the Turks, and Gengis, ainsi que les Arabes, les Turcs, 

many others, have founded large et beaucoup d'autres, ont fait de 

establishments far from their country. grands etablissements loin de leur 

patrie. 

Count Piper, with some officers of Le Comte Piper, avec quelques qfficiers de 

chancery, had left the camp. la chancellerie, avaient quitte le camp. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS SEVERAL NOMINATIVES THE 
FIRST TWO OF WHICH ARE SEPARATED BY ANY OF THE EXPRESSIONS PLU- 
TOT QUE, RATHER THAN, PLUS QUE, MORE THAN, MOINS QUE, LESS THAN, 
NON SEULEMENT, NOT ONLY, ETC. 

707. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns the first 
two of which are separated by any of the expressions plutot que, plus 
que, moins que, non settlement, mais, &c, that verb should always 
agree with the noun which expresses the predominant idea ; but, if 
any of these expressions were preceded by more than one noun, the 
verb, then, should be used in the plural ; as in, 

It is his ambition, rather than his re- C'est son ambition, plus encore que ses 

verses, which caused his loss. revers, qui a cause sa perte. 

It is less his reverses than his ambition Ce sont moins ses revers que son am- 

which caused his loss. bition qui Va perdu. 

Wisdom and virtue, rather than the II faut que ce soit la sagesse et la vertu, 

presence of Mentor, ought to tell you plutot que la presence de Mentor, qui 

what you have to do. vous inspirent ce que vous devez faire. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES TWO VERBS 
IN THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

708. When a verb has for its nominatives two verbs in the infinitive 
mood, it is used in the singular, if the two nominatives act separately 
upon the verb ; and in the plural, if they act conjointly ; as in, 

To know how to listen and to answer, Bien ecouter et bien repondre, est une des 

is one of the greatest perfections that plus grandes perfections qu'on puisse 

one can possess in conversation. avoir dans la conversation. 

To grow old, to be sick, and to die, Vieillir, etre malade, et mourir, sont lea 

are the greatest evils of life. plus grands maux de la vie. 



VERB. 329 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE THE 
EXPRESSION PLUS D'UN, MORE THAN ONE. 

709. When a verb has for its nominative the expression plus d'un, 
more than one, it is used in the singular, unless that expression is 
repeated before it ; it is always used in the plural after plus de deux, 
trois, &c, more than two, three, &c. ; as in, 

Everything was supernatural in Moses. Tout etait surnaturel dans Mo'ise. Plus 

More than one learned man has d'un savant Ya regarde comme un 

regarded him as a very skilful poli- politique tres habile, 
tician. 

I have found more than one Englishman J'ai connu plus d'un Anglais et plus 

and more than one German who found d'un Allemand qui ne trouvaient 

harmony only in their language. d'harmonie que dans leur langue. 



OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE A 
COLLECTIVE NOUN TAKEN IN A GENERAL SENSE AND PRECEDED BY THE 
ARTICLE THE IN FRENCH. 

710. When a verb has for its nominative a collective noun taken in 
a general sense and preceded by the article the in French, that verb is 
always used in the singular, whether the collective noun is followed 
by a noun in the plural or in the singular ; as in, 

One half of mankind lives at the ex- La moitie des hommes vit aux depena 

pense of die other half. des autres. 

One half of the world has always La moitie du monde a toujours mange' 

absorbed the other. l'autre. 

However, there are cases in which the verb should be used in the 
plural ; and this is the case when the mind is more strongly impressed 
by the idea represented by the plural noun than by the collective noun 
in the singular ; as in, 

One half of the trees I have planted are La moitii des arbres que j'ai plant6a 
dead. sont marts . 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE A COLLEC- 
TIVE NOUN TAKEN IN A PARTITIVE SENSE. 

711. When a verb has for its nominative a collective noun taken in 
a partitive sense and followed by a noun in the plural, that verb is 
either used in the singular or the plural, according to the mind refer- 

28* 



330 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



ring more especially to the idea of plurality represented by the noun 
in the plural than to the collective noun itself; as in, 



A crowd, an infinity, a multitude of 

young Phoenicians were performing 

the dances of their country. 
How many victories are to be found 

during the third period of the Roman 

republic ! 
A crowd of barbarians ravaged the 

country. 



Une foule, une infinite, une multitude 

de jeunes Pheniciens executaient les 

danses de leur pays. 
Quelle foule de victoires se present e dans 

le troisieme age de la republique 

Romaine ! 
Une nuee de barbares desolerent tout le 

pays. 



712. With la plupart, the greatest part, or most, followed by a 
plural noun, the verb is always used in the plural ; but it is placed in 
the singular, if the noun which follows la plupart, or any other 
expression of the same kind, is in that number ; as in, 



Most men die without knowing it. 

Most men care but very little for the 
motives or diligence of a writer. 

An immense number of persons were 
present at this exhibition. 



La plupart des hommes meurent sans le 

savoir. 
La plupart du monde se soucie fort peu 

de l'intention et de la diligence des 

auteurs. 
Un nombre infini, or une infinite, de 

monde assistait a ce spectacle. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE AN ADVERB 
OF QUANTITY, OR A NOUN USED WITHOUT BEING PRECEDED BY THE OR A, 
EITHER OF THEM BEING FOLLOWED BY A NOUN IN THE PLURAL. 

713. When a verb has for its nominative an adverb of quantity, 
such as peu, few, beaucoup, many, assez, enough, moins, less, plus, 
more, trop, too many, &c, or a noun used without its being preceded 
either by the or a, such as force, nombre, quantite, &c, many, fol- 
lowed by a noun in the plural, the verb is always used in that number ; 
but it is employed in the singular whenever the noun following any 
of the above expressions is not used in the plural ; as in, 

So many years of habit were like iron Tant d'annees d'habitude etaient comme 

chains which bound me to those men. des chaines de fer qui me liaient a ces 

hommes. 

There are people enough who know Assez de gens meprisent les richesses, 

how to despise riches, but very few mais peu savent s'en separer. 

who know how to part with them. 

There were many jewels shining on her Force brillants sur sa robe eclataient. 

dress. 

Many people are afraid of public opin- Quantite de gens redoutent l'opinion du 

ion. m public. 

Such a kindness will ruin you. Tant de bonte vous perdra. 

714. Remark. The same rule is applicable when the plural noun is 
understood after the adverb of quantity ; as in, 

Everybody wishes for prosperity, but Tous souhaitent la prosperite, mais peu 
few know how to enjoy it. savent en jouir. 



VERB. 331 

Very few people know how to distin- Tres peu savent distinguer le familier 
guish between wbat is familiar and du nature!, 
what is natural. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN PRECEDED BY THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 

QUI. 

715. As the pronoun qui is always of the same number as its ante- 
cedent, the preceding rules are applicable, whether the several nom- 
inatives of the verb act directly upon it, or through the medium of that 
relative pronoun. There is one case, however, which may present 
some difficulty ; it is the following : 

716. Whenever the relative pronoun qui, acting as the nominative 
of the verb following, comes after a plural noun or pronoun preceded 
by de or des, either of these words being itself preceded by a noun in 
the singular, the verb should be used in the plural, if qui relates to the 
last of the two nouns separated by de or des ; and in the singular, if it 
relates to the first ; as in, 

Thales is the first amongst the Greeks Thales est le premier des Grecs qui ait 

who has ever taught that the soul is enseigne que l'ame est immortelle. 

immortal. 

Saint Therese was one of the wise Sainte Therese fut une des merges pru- 

virgins who knew how to command dentes qui surent obeir et commander. 

and obey. 

Man is the only animal who exercises L'homme est le seul des animaux qui 

agriculture and the innumerable arts exerce l'agriculture et les arts innom- 

which derive from it. brables qui en derivent. 

IS'apoleon is one of the most ambitious Napoleon est l'un des princes les plus 

princes that have ever reigned. ambitieux qui aient jamais regne. 



OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE THE PRO- 
NOUN CE. 

717. (We refer the student to what we have already said of this 
pronoun when treating of the demonstrative pronouns.) 

OF SEVERAL CASES IN WHICH THE VERB SHOULD BE USED IN THE PLURAL, 
ALTHOUGH ITS NOMINATIVE IS IN THE SINGULAR. 

718. There are cases in which the verb should be used in the plu- 
ral, although its nominative is in the singular ; this agreement is 
authorized by a figure, which is grammatically called attraction; that 
is to say, the mind is attracted towards the plural by the meaning of 
the expression, rather than by the expression itself; as in, 



All the Hebrews who remain faithful f C \ «**' reste encore de fid « les m ' 
shall come to-day to renew their*! T . reux > ,,, . , 

allegiance to Him 1 Lu / ™ ndront aujourd'hui renouveler 

5 1, leurs voeux. 



332 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Her decease is nothing but. Sa maladie sont des vapeurs. 

What I tell you is no joke. Ce queje vous dis la ne sont pas des 

chansons. 
Riches arise from commerce. L'effet du commerce sont les rich- 



QUESTIONS 



G85. What is the place of the nominative of a verb in a sentence which is 
not interrogative 1 

686. What is the place of the nominative of a verb in an interrogative sen- 
tence when that nominative is a pronoun 1 

686. When, in an interrogative sentence, the verb ends with a vowel, and has 
for its nominative either of the pronouns il, elle, or on, what should be placed 
between the verb and the pronoun in order to avoid the meeting of the two 
vowels 1 

686. When an interrogation is made with a verb in the first person singular 
of the present of the indicative, and that verb is a monosyllable, how is the sen- 
tence generally constructed 1 

687. When, in an interrogative sentence, the verb has a noun for its nomina- 
tive, how should that sentence be constructed, provided no absolute pronoun or 
interrogative adverb should be used 1 

688. How should a sentence of the same kind be constructed when it begins 
in English either with an interrogative adverb or an absolute pronoun, and the 
verb, having no object, is not used in any of the compound tenses 1 

689. What should always be the construction when the verb has an object, 
or is used in a compound tense 1 

690. How should the sentence be constructed, if the verb, having no object, 
were followed by an incidental proposition beginning by a relative pronoun hav- 
ing for its antecedent the nominative of the verb of the principal proposition 1 

691. Can an interrogative sentence, on any account, begin with the nomina- 
tive of the verb, when there is an interrogative adverb used in that sentence 1 
If this construction is sometimes allowed, in what meaning! and how should the 
sentence be punctuated *? 

692. What is the place of the nominative in a sentence used as a quotation 1 

693. What is the place of the nominative, when the subjunctive mood is used 
without que, in order to express a wish 1 

694. Where is the nominative placed, when the verb, being preceded by its 
object, is itself immediately preceded by a relative pronoun having that object for 
its antecedent 1 

695. What is the place of the nominative in impersonal sentences constructed 
with the verb to be? 

696. What is the place of the nominative in sentences beginning with either 
of the words tel and ainsi? 

697. What is the place of the nominative when the sentence begins with any 
of the adverbs aussi, toujours, peut-etre, encore, en vain, vainement, du moins, and 
au moins, whether this nominative be either a noun or a pronoun 1 

698. What is the place of the nominative when it is followed by a number of 
words which either restrict, extend, or modify its signification 1 

699. When a verb has but one noun for its nominative, in what number and 
person should it be used 1 

699. Can a verb in a personal mood be used without a nominative 1 

700. In what number should a verb be used when it has for its nominatives 
several nouns in the singular separated by either of the conjunctions and or 
neither ? 



VERB. 333 

700. If the two nominatives, being separated by neither, should be consid- 
ered as acting separately upon the verb, should this verb be used in the plural or 
in the singular 1 

701. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the singular, 
these nouns not being separated by and or neither, in what case is that verb used 
in the plural, and when in the singular 1 

702. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the singular sepa- 
rated by the conjunction or, in what case is the verb used in the plural, and 
when in the singular 1 

703. In what number should a verb be used, when, having several nouns for 
its nominatives, diese nouns are summed up by any of the words tout, rien, per- 
sonne, &C.1 

704. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominatives 
several nouns modified by any of the indefinite pronouns tout, chaque, quelque, 
aucun, &C.1 

705. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative 
either of the indefinite pronouns Pun and V autre, ni Vun ni V autre? 

706. In what number should a verb be used, when, having several nouns for 
its nominatives, the first two are separated by any of the expressions comme, 
ainsi que, avec, de meme que, &c 1 

707. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominatives 
several nouns, the first two of which are separated by any of the expressions plu- 
tbt que, plus que, moins que, non seulement? 

708. In what number should a verb be used, when it has two other verbs in 
the infinitive mood for its nominatives 1 

70.9. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative 
the expression ^us d'un? 

710. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative 
a collective noun, taken in a general sense and preceded by the article the? 

711. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative a 
collective noun taken in a partitive sense 1 

712. When the collective expression laplupart is followed by a plural noun, 
can the verb be used in the singular % and how is it when it is followed by a 
noun in the singular % 

713 What is die number of a verb, when it has for its nominative either an 
adverb of quantity or a noun used without being preceded either by a or the, fol- 
lowed by a plural noun q . 

714. What should be the case if the plural noun were not expressed after the 
adverb of quantity 1 

715. What should be the number of a verb having the pronoun qui for its 
nominative 1 

716. If the pronoun qui should come after a plural noun or pronoun pre- 
ceded by de or des, either of these words being itself preceded by a noun in the 
singular, when should the verb following be used either in the plural or in the 
singular number 1 

717. (The teacher should repeat here the questions which have already 
been given, when speaking of the pronoun ce, in reference to the number of the 
verb following.) 

718. Are there not cases in which a verb should be used in the plural, 
although its nominative should be in the singular 1 Which are they 1 



334 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE IN REF- 
ERENCE TO PERSONS. 

719. The verb should always be of the same person as its nomina- 
tive, whether this nominative be a noun or a pronoun. This rule pre- 
sents no difficulty whenever the verb has for its nominative either a 
single noun or pronoun, or several nouns ; for if the nominative be one 
or several nouns, the verb should be in the third person ; and if a pro- 
noun, it should be in the same person as that pronoun. 

Let us examine now in what person the verb should be used when 
it has for its nominatives one or several nouns with one or several pro- 
nouns, or more than one pronoun only. 



OF THE PERSON IN WHICH THE VERB SHOULD BE USED WHEN IT HAS FOR 
ITS NOMINATIVES ONE OR SEVERAL NOUNS, AND ONE OR MORE PERSONAL 
PRONOUNS, OR MORE THAN ONE PRONOUN ONLY. 

720. We have already stated, when speaking of personal pronouns, 
that the first person takes the precedence over the two others, and the 
second over the third ; therefore, if amongst the several nominatives 
of a verb there is a pronoun of the first person, the verb should be in 
the first person plural, preceded or not by the pronoun nous, as a mat- 
ter of taste ; if, there being no pronoun of the first person, there is one 
of the second, the verb should be in the second person plural, pre- 
ceded or not by the plural pronoun vous ; if, finally, the several nomi- 
natives were all in the third person, the verb should be in the third 
person plural ; as in, 

Your sisters, brothers, you and I, will Vos sceurs, vos freres, vous et mot, 

go to Boston this evening. (nous) irons ce soir a Boston. 

Your father, you and he, shall accom- Votrepere, wus etlui, (vous,) trCaccom- 

pany me in my expedition. pagnerez dans mon expedition. 

Your friends and he were arrested last Vos amis et lui ont ete arretes la nuit 

night. derniere. 

721. Remark. The same rule is applicable, whenever, the nomina- 
tives being several pronouns, or a noun and one or several pronouns, 
are separated by the conjunction or, ou, instead of and, et; as in, 

You or he has broken this glass. Vous ou lui avez casse ce verre. 

He or I will be married this year. Lui ou moi serons maries cette annee. 

But when the two pronouns are of the third person, if they 
are both in the singular, the verb is used in the third person sin- 



VERB. 335 

gular ; and if one is in the plural, the verb is in the third person plu- 
ral : as in, 

He or she has deceived me. Lui ou elle m'a trompe. 

He or they will start for Europe to- Lui ou eux partiront demain pour l'Eu- 
morrow. rope. 



OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB IN REFERENCE TO PERSONS, WHEN IT HAS 
THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI FOR ITS NOMINATIVE. 

722. The relative pronoun qui being of the same person as its ante- 
cedent, it is evident that the verb of which it is the nominative should 
be in the same person as that of those antecedents ; however, the con- 
struction of a sentence may be such as sometimes to leave some doubts 
in reference to the agreement of the verb, and we shall examine the 
several cases in which this doubt may arise. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, PRECEDED BY AN ADJECTIVE. 

723. When a verb is preceded by qui, having for its antecedent a 
personal pronoun followed by an adjective, the verb should be in the 
same person as that personal pronoun ; as in, 

I alone am guilty. C'est moi seul qui suis coupable. 

Do not curse thy fate; thou alone hast N'accuse point ton sort; c'est tot seul 
made it what it is. qui Vas fait. 



OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, HAVING FOR ITS ANTECEDENT AN ADJECTIVE 
USED AS A NOUN, THAT IS TO SAY, PRECEDED BY THE ARTICLE THE. 

724. Whenever the relative pronoun qui has for its antecedent an 
adjective used as a noun, which adjective is used as the attribute of a 
verb having for its nominative a personal pronoun, the verb which 
follows qui may be used either in the third person singular or plu- 
ral, and it then agrees with the adjective used as a noun, or in the 
same person as the nominative of the first verb ; as in, 

I am the first one who has made the Je suis le premier qui ai fait connaitre 
French acquainted with Shakspeare. Shakspeare aux Francais. (Vol- 
taire.) 
I am the first one who has ever given a Je suis le premier qui ait donne la des- 
description of Laconia. cription de la Laconic (Chateau- 

briand.) 
You are the only one who seems to Vous etes le seul qui paraissiez corn- 
understand happiness. prendre le bonheur. (J. J. Rous- 
seau.) 
Thou wert the only one who could con- Tu etais la seule qui put me consoler de 
sole me for the absence of Rica. l'absence de Rica. (Montesquieu.) 



336 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, HAVING A NOUN FOR ITS ANTECEDENT. 

725. Whenever, in an affirmative sentence, the relative pronoun qui 
has for its antecedent a noun which is itself the attribute of the verb, 
having for its nominative a personal pronoun of the first or second 
person singular or plural, if the nominative and the attribute of that 
verb do not present to the mind two distinct and separate objects, the 
relative pronoun qui refers forcibly to the first, and the verb which it 
precedes agrees in number and person with the nominative ; as in, 

I am a young widow who is in need of Je suis une jeune veuve qui ai besoin 
a husband. d'un mari. (Voltaire.) 

You are a couple of rogues who asso- Vous etes un couple de fripons qui me 
sociate to cheat me. jouez d'intelligence. (J. J. Rous- 

seau.) 

But if the personal pronoun and its attribute, although they are 
identical, should present themselves to the mind as two distinct and 
separate objects, then the relative pronoun qui should refer to the last, 
and the verb which it precedes should be used in the third person sin- 
gular or plural ; as in, 

I am a cook whose talents are no longer Je suis un cuisinier qui n'a plus ni sel 

appreciated. ni sauce. (Voltaire.) 

You are a guardian angel who came to Vous etes un genie tutelaire qui est venu 

to consolidate peace. consolider la paix. (Laveaux.) 

Remark. Whenever the sentence is negative, the verb which fol- 
lows qui is always used in the third person. 



OF THE OBJECT OF VERBS. 

726. A word is said to be the object of a verb when it depends 
immediately on that verb, and restrains its signification. 

A word may restrain the signification of a verb directly or indirectly. 

A word restrains the signification of a verb directly when it follows 
the verb immediately, without the help of a preposition, expressed or 
understood ; and it is then called the direct object of that verb. 

A word restrains the signification of a verb indirectly, when it 
follows it, being preceded by a preposition, expressed or understood. 

We discover the direct object of a verb by applying to it the ques- 
tion, whom? qui? ox what? quoi? The answer is the direct object. 



VERB. 



337 



When we say, I love; whom? God; J'aime; qui? Dieu : / study; 
what? Natural philosophy ; J'etudie; quoi? La physique : the words 
Dieu, God, la physique, natural philosophy, are the direct objects of 
the verbs faime, j'etudie, I love, I study. 

The indirect object of a verb is discovered by asking the questions, 
de qui, de quoi, & qui, & quoi, &c, of whom, of what, to whom, to 
what, &c. ; the answer to these questions shows the indirect object ; 
as, I complain; of whom? of you; Je me plains; de qui? de vous. 
I repent; of what? of my fault ; Je me repens ; de quoi? de ma faute. 
I speak; to whom? to Peter; Je parle; a qui? a Pierre. I" yield; 
to what? to my grief; Je succombe ; a quoi? a. ma douleur. The 
words vous, Pierre, faute, douleur, are the indirect objects of the verbs 
je me plains, je parle, je me repens, je succombe. 

A verb may have for its object three sorts of words, — a verb in the 
infinitive, a noun, or a pronoun. 

OF THE VERB AS AN OBJECT. 

727. A verb in the infinitive limits the signification of another verb, 
ox is its object, either without the help of a preposition, or with the 
preposition &, to, or de, of. 

Some verbs never take a preposition before the infinitive which they 
govern : such are, aller, to go ; aimer mieux, to prefer ; falloir, to be 
necessary ; envoyer, to send ; daigner, to deign, &c. ; as, 

He goes to seek the book you want. U va chercher le livre dont vous avez 

besoin. 
Let the justice of the king pass. Laissez passer la justice du roi. 

We must set out. II j aut partir, &c. 

Some require the preposition of before the infinitive which they 
govern ; as, achever, to achieve ; affecter, to affect ; conseiller, to 
advise ; craindre, to fear ; promettre, to promise, &c. : 

Are you sure to find him * Etes-vous assure de le trouver. 

Do you not fear to go alone 1 Ne craignez-vous pas rf'aller seul 1 

Do you promise me to change 1 Me promettez-vous de changer ^ &c. 

An immense number take the preposition &, to, before the infinitive 
governed by them ; as, avoir, to have ; aimer, to love ; consentir, to 
consent ; parvenir, to succeed, &c. : 

I have to write a letter. J'ai <i ecrire une lettre. 

I love hunting. J'aime a chasser. 

I consent to make the first step. Je consens d faire le premier pas, &c. 

29 



333 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Finally, there are some verbs which govern either d, or de, accord- 
ing to the sense in which they are taken. 

Foreigners, then, must resort to a good dictionary as a guide, and, 
through the illustrations contained in it, get the habit of knowing 
surely how to express themselves according to circumstances. 

However, in order to facilitate this difficult and barren subject, we 
will give an abridged list of verbs generally used with or without the 
prepositions to and of before the infinitive governed by them. 



723. OF VERBS GOVERNING, WITHOUT A PREPOSITION, THE INFINITIVE WHICH 
FOLLOWS THEM. 



Aller 


to go 


Observer 


to observe 


Affirmer 


to affirm 


Oser 


to dare 


Apercevoir 


to perceive 


Ouir 


to hear 


Assurer 


to assure 


Paraitre 


to appear 


Avoir beau 


to be in vain 


Publier 


to publish 
to be able 


Avouer 


to own 


Pouvoir 


Compter 


to intend 


Rapporter 


to report 


Confesser 


to confess 


Reconnaltre 


to recognize 


Considerer 


to consider 


Retourner 


to return 


Croire 


to believe 


Savoir 


to know 


Daigner 


to deign 


S'imaginer 


to imagine 


Declarer 


to declare 


Sembler 


to seem 


Deposer 


to depose 


Se rappeler 


to remember 


Devoir 


to owe 


Se trouver 


to find 


Ec outer 


to listen 


Souhaiter 


to wish 


Entendre 


to hear 


Soutenir 


to maintain 


Envoyer 


to send 


Temoigner 


to testify 


Epier 


to espy 


Valoir mieux 


to be better 


Faire 


to make 


Voir 


to see 


Falloir 


to be necessary 


Vouloir 


to be willing 


Nier 


to deny 







Although this list is far from being complete, it contains the verbs 
which are generally used before infinitives without a preposition, and 
may be of great service to the student. 



729. OF VERBS GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION DE, OF, BEFORE THE INFINITIVE 
WHICH FOLLOWS THEM. 



Abstenir 


to abstain 


Blamer 


to blame 


Abuser 


to abuse 


Censurer 


to censure 


Achever 


to achieve 


Cesser 


to cease 


Affecter 


to affect 


Choisir 


to choose 


Affliger 


to afflict 


Chagriner 


to vex 


Apprehender 


to apprehend 


Charger 


to charge 


Approuver 


to approve of 


Commander 


to command 


Arreter 


to stop 


Conclure 


to conclude 


Attendrir 


to soften 


Conjurer 


to conjure 


Attrister 


to grieve 


Conseiller 


to advise 


Avertir 


to warn 


Convaincre 


to convince 


Avoir pitie 


to have pity 


Convenir 


to agree to 



VERB. 



339 



Craiudre 


to fear 


Oublier 


to forget 


Decharger 


to discharge 


Pardonner 


to pardon 


Decourager 


to discourage 


Parler 


to speak 


Defendre 


to defend 


Permettre 


to permit 


Degouter 


to disgust 


Persuader 


to persuade 


Deliberer 


to deliberate 


Plaindre 


to pity 


Demander 


to demand, or to 


Pleurer 


to cry for 




beg as a favor 


Prescrire 


to prescribe 


Desesperer 


to despair 


Presser 


to press 


Desoler 


to make one mad 


Presumer 


to presume 


Determiner 


to determine 


Prevenir 


to caution against 
to apprize of 


Detourner 


to deter from 


Prevenir 


Differer 


to differ 


Priver 


to deprive 


Dire 


to say 


Professer 


to profess 


Disconvenir 


to disagree 


Profiter 


to improve 


Dispenser 


to dispense 


Promettre 


to promise 


Dissuader 


to dissuade 


Proposer 


to propose 


Divertir 


to divert 


Punir 


to punish 


Ecrire 


to write 


Recommender 


to recommend 


Edifier 


to edify 


Recompenser 


to reward 


Effrayer 


to frighten 


Redouter 


to dread 


Embarrasser 


to embarrass, to 


Refuser 


to refuse 




puzzle 


Rejooir 


to rejoice 


Empecher 


to hinder 


Remercier 


to thank 


Enjoindre 


to enjoin 


Reprendre 


to reprove 


Entreprendre 


to undertake 


Reprimander 


to reprimand 


Epouvanter 


to terrify. 


Reproclier 


to reproach 


Etre d 'accord 


to concur in 


Retenir 


to keep from 


Excuser 


to excuse 


Rougir 


to blush at 


Enrager 


to enrage 


Scandaliser 


to scandalize 


Etre surpris 


to stare 


S'abstenir 


to abstain 


Exempter 


to exempt 


S'accommoder 


to make, to shift 


Exiger 


to require 


S'acquitter 


to perform 


Feindre 


to feign 


S'affliger 


to grieve 


Fioir 


to finish 


S'amouracher 


to fall in love 


Fremir 


to shudder at 


S'apercevoir 


to perceive 


Gener 


to make uneasy 


S'approcher 


to approach 


Gronder 


to scold 


S'attrister 


to be sorrowful 


Hair 


to hate 


S'aviser 


to think 


Hesiter 


to hesitate 


Se chagriner 


to grieve one's self 


Inspirer 


to inspire 


Se charger 


to take charge of 


Jouir 


to enjoy 


Se consoler 


to comfort one's self 


Juger a propos 


to find proper 


Se defier 


to mistrust 


Jurer 


to swear 


Se demettre 


to resign 


Justifier 


to justify 


Se depecher 


to make haste 


Louer 


to praise 


Se desaccoutumer 


to leave off doing 


Mander 


to write word 


Se deshabituer 


(( ie 


Manquer 


to want 


Se desister 


to desist 


Medire 


to slander 


S'edifier 


to edify one's self 


Med iter 


to meditate 


S 'effrayer 


to get frightened 


Menacer 


to threaten 


S'emanciper 


to take liberty 


Meriter 


to merit 


S'emparer 


to take possession 


Mettre hors d'etal 


; to disable from 


S'empresser 


to hasten 


Murmurer 


to murmur at 


S'ennuyer 


to grow weary 


rsegliger 


to neglect 


S'enorguillir 


to grow proud 


Notifier 


to notify 


S'etonner 


to be surprised 


Offrir 


to offer 


S 'exempter 


to free one's self 


Omettre 


to omit 


Se faire gloire 


to glory in 


Ordonner 


to order 


Se flatter 


to flatter one's self 



340 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Se garder 

Se hater 

S'impatienter 

S'indigner 

S'informer 

S'ingerer 

S'inquieter 
Se meler 
Se moquer 
Se piquer 
Se piquer de 
Se plaindre 
Se precipiter 

Se presser 
Se ranger 
Se rebuter 
Se rejouir 



to take care not to 

to haste 

to grow impatient 

to be indignant 

to inquire 

to take upon one's 

self 
to fret 

to meddle with 
to laugh at 
to pretend 
to pride one's self on 
to complain 
to overhasten one's 

self 
to hasten 
to revenge 
to be disheartened 
to rejoice at 



Se repentir 

Se ressouvenir 

Se retenir 

Se retracer 

Se saisir 

Se scandaliser 

Se servir 

Se soucier 

Se vanter 

Sommer 

Soupconner 

Suggerer 

Supplier 

Surprendre 

Susciter 

Tromper 

Troubler 

Tourmenter 

User 



to repent 

to remember 

to keep one's self 

to remember 

to seize 

to be offended at 

to use 

to care 

to boast 

to summon 

to suspect 

to suggest 

to beseech 

to surprise 

to put in mind 

to deceive 

to trouble 

to torment 

to use 



OP VERBS GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION A, TO, BEFORE THE INFINITIVE 
WHICH FOLLOWS THEM. 



Acceder 

Accoutumer 

Adherer 

Admettre 

Aider 

Aimer 

Apprendre 

Appreter 

Arriver 

Assigner 

Autoriser 

Avoir 

Chercher 

Condamner 

Convier 

Contribuer 

Condescendre 

Compatir 

Coasister 

Consentir 

Depenser 

Destiner 

Disposer 

Donner 

Dresser 

Demeurer 

Deplaire 

Desobeir 

Eclairer 

Employer 

Enconrager 

Enhardir 

Enseigner 

Exciter 

Exercer 



to accede 

to accustom 

to adhere 

to admit 

to help 

to love 

to learn 

to afford matter 

to arrive 

to summon 

to authorize 

to have 

to seek 

to condemn 

to invite 

to contribute 

to condescend 

to compassionate 

to consist 

to consent 

to spend 

to design 

to dispose 

to give 

to train up 

to stay 

to displease 

to disobey 

to light 

to employ 

to encourage 

to embolden 

to teach 

to excite 

to exercise 



Engager 

Inciter 

Incliner 

Li miter 

Montrer 

Nuire 

Obeir 

Obvier 

Pardonner 

Parvenir 

Passer son temps 

Penser 

Perdre 

Persister 

Plaire 

Porter 

Pourvoir 

Pousser 

Prendre plaisir 

Presenter 

Pretendre 

Proceder 

Provoquer 

Regarder 

Renoncer 

Resister 

Rester 

Rever 

S'abandonner 

S'abaisser 

S 'abuser 

S'accorder 

S 'accoutumer 

S'acharner 

S'aguerrir ' 



to induce 

to incite 

to incline 

to limit 

to show 

to hurt 

to obey 

to obviate 

to forgive 

to arrive 

to spend one's time. 

to think 

to lose 

to persist 

to please 

to induce 

to provide 

to excite 

to delight 

to present 

to pretend 

to proceed 

to provoke 

to hesitate 

to renounce 

to resist 

to remain 

to think 

to indulge 

to humble one's self 

to be mistaken 

to agree 

to accustom 

to be enraged 

to inure one's self 



VERB. 



341 



S'ainuser 

S'appliquer 

S'appreter 

S'arre'ter 

S'assujettir 

S'astreindre 

S'attacher 

S'attendre 

S'avilir 

Se complaire 

Se decider 

Se deplaire 

Se disposer 

Se determiner 

S'endurcir 

S 'engager 

S'exposer 



to be amused 

to apply one's self 

to prepare 

to stand upon 

to subject 

to submit 

to give one's self to 

to expect 

to vilify 

to please one's self 

to resolve 

to be displeased in 

to prepare one's self 

to resolve 

to inure one's self 

to bind one's self 

to expose one's self 



Se fier 
S'habituer 
Se livrer 
Se mettre 
Se mettre 
S'obstiner 
S'opiniatrer 
Se plaire 
Se preparer 
Se resoudre 
Se retrancher 
Servir 
Songer 
Subvenir 
Tendre 
Travailler 
Viser 



to trust 

to use one's self 

to give one's self to 

to go to 

to give one's self to 

to be obstinately bent 

to be obstinate 

to please one's self 

to prepare one's self 

to resolve upon 

to confine one's self 

to serve 

to think 

to relieve 

to aim 

to work 

to aim 



OF VERBS WHICH, ACCORDING TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION, SHOULD BE USED 
WITHOUT ANY PREPOSITION OR FOLLOWED EITHER BY X OR DE BEFORE AN 
INFINITrVE. 

731. There are verbs which may be used either without any prepo- 
sition, or followed by a or de before an infinitive, according to the 
sense in which they are used ; they are the following : 



Aimer mieux 


to prefer 


Pretendre 


to pretend, to aim at, 


Commencer 


to begin 




&c. 


Continuer 


to continue 


Prier 


to beg, to invite, &c. 


Contraindre 


to compel 


Regarder 


to look, to hesitate, 


Decider 


to decide, to induce 




&c. 


Defier 


to defy 


Resoudre 


to resolve, to decide, 


Desirer 


to desire 




&c. 


Esperer 


to hope 


Risquer 


to hazard, to run the 


Essayer 


to try 




risk of, &c. 


Etre 


to be 


S'efforcer 


to attempt, &c. 


Forcer 


to force 


S'occuper 


to think of, to be about 


Laisser 


to leave, &c. 




a»thing 


Manquer 


to want, to fail, to 


Suffire 


to suffice 




miss 


Tacher 


to try, to attempt 


Obliger 


to compel, to oblige, 


Tarder 


to tarry, to delay 




&c. 


Valoir mieux 


to be better 


Oublier 


to forget 


Venir 


to come, to have just 


Penser 


to think, to be near, 
&c. 


En venir 


to come to 



Aimer mieux and valoir mieux, when followed by two verbs in the 
infinitive mood and separated by que, require no preposition before the 
first, but take de before the last ; as in, 



I would rather die than disgrace myself. J'aimerais mieux mourir que de me des- 

honorer. 
It is better to die than to disgrace one's II vant mieux mourir que de se des- 
self. bonorer. 

29* 



342 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



However, this rule is not absolute, as we have before mentioned, 
in our article on the degrees of comparison. 

Commencer, expressing an action which will progress towards an 
end, governs de before an infinitive ; as in, 

Mr. W. began to speak at ten o'clock, Mr. W. commenpa de parler a dix 
and his speech lasted until two. heures, et ne finit qu'a deux. 

But when this verb expresses the beginning of an action, without 
the idea of its end being presented to the mind, it governs the prepo- 
sition &; as in, 

My son begins to speak and walk. Mon fils commence a marcher et d par- 

ler. 

Continuer. When this verb expresses an action which is to be 
continued without interruption, it governs the preposition il; but if 
that action, being interrupted, is only to be continued from time to 
time, the verb governs the preposition de; as in, 

My wife is still very sick. Ma femme continue a se mal porter. 

Although I have to complain of your Quoique j'aie a me plaindre de votre 
sister, I still continue to visit her. sceur, je continue de la voir. 

Contraindre. Used actively, this verb governs the preposition & ; 
passively, it takes de after it ; as in, 

I will compel you to obey me. Je vous contraindrai a m'obeir. 

I am compelled to obey him. Je suis contraint de lui obeir. 

Decider or determiner. When this verb signifies to induce a per- 
son to do a thing, it governs the preposition il before the infinitive fol- 
lowing, but when meaning to resolve upon doing a thing, it governs 
the preposition de ; as in, 

They have induced him to go. On l'a decide a partir. 

The government has decided to begin Le gouvernement a decide de commen- 
the war immediately. cer la guerre immediatement. 

Used passively, this verb always governs the preposition h; as in, 

The government is determined to go to Le gouvernement est decide a faire la 
war. guerre. 

Determiner follows the same rule. 

Defier. When this verb signifies to set at defiance, it governs the 
preposition de; as in, 

I defy you to ever forget me. Je vous dtfie de m'oublier jamais. 



VERB. 343 

But when defier signifies to provoke, to excite, it takes the preposi- 
tion &; as in, 

I provoke him to drink with me, (to Je le defiai a boire. 
know who could drink the most.) 

Desirer and Esperer. When either of these two verbs expresses a 
wish or a hope, which may be accomplished at the will of the person 
who wishes or hopes, it does not take any preposition after it ; 
but if the object of the desire or wish is beyond the control of the 
person who speaks, either of these verbs governs the preposition de; 



I hope to go and see you to-morrow. J'espere aller vous voir demain. 
I hope to go to heaven. J'espere d'aller au ciel. 

Essay er and Tdcher. When either of these two verbs is used in a 
sentence, the sense of which relates rather more to the end to be 
accomplished than to the efforts made to obtain it, it governs the prep- 
osition d ; as in, 

She tried to seduce him with gentle Elle tdcha, or essaya, d le gagner par de 
words. douces paroles. 

But when either of these verbs relates rather more to the efforts to 
be made in order to succeed than to the end to be gained, it takes 
after it the preposition de ; as in , 

I tried to get up and walk, but I fell Je tdchai, or essayai, de me lever et de 
back on my bed. marcher, mais je retombai sur mon 

lit. 

Eire. When this verb, used with the pronoun ce, expresses an 
idea of right or duty, it governs the preposition de; but if it expresses 
an idea of turn, it requires the preposition d to be used after it ; as in, 

It is your turn to deal. C'est a vous d donner. 

It is yours to command and mine to C'est a vous d'ordonner et d moi 
obey. d'obeir. 

Forcer and Ohliger. When either of these two verbs signifies to 
force, to compel, and is used actively, it governs the preposition d; 
but when used in the passive voice, it should be followed by the prep- 
osition de; as in, 

If you do not behave better, you will Si vous ne vous conduisez pas mieux, 
compel me to be severe with you. vous me forcerez, or m'obligerez a 

me montrer severe envers vous. 



344 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

We wished to resist, but we were soon Nous voulumes resister, mais nous 
compelled to submit. fumes bientot fords, or obliges, 

tTobeir. 

Remark. When obliger means to do a favor, to assist, it always 
governs the preposition de; as in, 

I would be very much obliged to you, Vous m'obligeriez beaucoup de me re- 
if you would recommend me to the commander a mes juges. 
judges. 

Whenever obliger implies the idea of a moral obligation, this verb 
is only applied to persons ; as in, 

We have to obey the laws of our coun- On est oblige d'obeir aux lois de son 
try. pays. 

We could not say, 

Youth is obliged to respect old people, Lajeunesse est obligee de respecter lea 

personnes agees, 

because youth is not a noun of persons ; this sentence should be 
expressed by, 

Un jeune homme, or les jeunes gens, &c. 

Laisser. Whenever laisser is used in the following significations : 

I leave you to think whether they were amused or not ; 
I leave to the witnesses of my conduct to justify me ; 



This author leaves a great deal to the reader's own reflections ; 

it governs the preposition d,; as in, 

Je vous laisse a penser s'ils s'amusaient ou non 

Je laisse aux temoins de ma conduite a me justifier. . 

Cet auteur laisse beaucoup d penser. 

But when laisser means to leave off or to forbear, it governs the prepo- 
sition de; as in, 

For all that I told him, he does not Malgre tout ce que je lui ai dit, il ne 
leave off, or forbear, doing it. laisse pas de le faire. 

This verb is also used without a preposition when it signifies to 
permit, to allow, &c. ; as in, 

Let me see your pretty dresses. Laissez-moi voir vos jolies robes. 



VERB. 345 



Manquer. When manquer signifies to fail hi one's duty, it takes 
the preposition &; when, being used negatively, it means to omit, to 
forget, or to be near doing a thing, it governs the preposition de; as in, 

He who fails in love to God, breaks the Celui qui manque a aimer Dieu, manque 

chief obligation of true faith. a la principale obligation de la foi. 

Do not forget to come to-night; I have Ne manquez pas de veuir ce soir; j'ai 

something very important to tell you. quelque chose de tres important a. 

vous dire. 

I was very near breaking my neck this J'ai bien manque de me casser le con 

morning. ce matin. 

Oublier. When oublier signifies to forget a thing we have once 
known how to do, it takes the preposition iX; but, if it means to forget 
{to neglect) doing a thing, it governs de; as in, 

I have forgotten my dancing and sing- i'ai oublie a, danser et d chanter. 

ing. (Obsolete.) 

I must return home, for I have forgotten II faut que je retourne chez moi, car 

to take my books. j'ai oublie de prendre mes livres. 

Penser. When this verb signifies that the mind is preoccupied 
about doing something immediately, it governs d; as in, 

What are you thinking about 1 I think A quoi pensez-vous 1 Je pense d lui 
of playing a trick on him. jouer un tour. 

But, if penser signifies to have been near doing a thing, or expresses 
the idea of a mere belief, it governs no preposition before the infinitive 
following ; as in, 

He nearly broke his leg this morning. II a pense se casser la jambe ce matin. 
I do not wish to yield, because I think Je ne veux pas ceder, parceque je pense 
I am right. avoir raison. 

Pretendre. When pretendre signifies to aim at, to aspire, it takes 
the preposition it; but, if it only means to say, to affirm, to mean, it 
governs no preposition before the infinitive following ; as in, 

Napoleon aimed at ruling the whole Napoleon pretendait d dominerlemonde 

world. entier. 

There was in the Persian empire a II y avait dans l'empire Persan un 
dervise who pretended he could certain derviche qui pretendait corn- 
understand the language of birds. prendre le langage des oiseaux. 

Prier. Prier, meaning to ask, to invite, to beg, to require, takes 
de before the next infinitive, except before the verbs dejeuner, diner, 
and souper, when with these verbs, prier denotes a formal invitation, 
sent some days in advance ; in which case it governs ti; as in, 

I happened to be at his house as he was Je me suis trouve chez lui, comme il 
going to sit down to dinner, and he allait se mettre a table, et il me pria 
requested me to dine with him. de diner avec lui. 



346 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I am invited to dine, next week, with Je suis prie d diner, la semaine pro- 
the president. chaine, chez le president. 

Regarder. When this verb signifies to hesitate, to be niggardly 
about doing a thing, it governs it ; as in, 

This man is a miser; he hesitates Cet homme est un avare; il rcgarde d 
about giving his children a proper donner a ses enfants une education 
education. convenable. 

But, when it simply means to look at, it governs no preposition 
before the next infinitive ; as in, 

What are you doing there 1 I am Que faites-vous la 1 Je regarde passer 
looking at the soldiers who are les troupes, 
passing. 

Resoudre and Determiner. Resoudre, as a neuter verb, meaning to 
resolve upon doing a thing, governs de; as in, 

I have resolved upon setting out im- J'ai resolu de partir sur le champ. 
mediately. 

Used actively, this verb governs it before the next infinitive ; as in, 

He cannot be brought to take that step. On ne saurait le risoudre d faire cette 

demarche. 

Used passively, resoudre governs de; as in, 

Are you determined to go there 1 Etes-vous resolu d'y aller 1 

Used reflectively, it governs ti ; as in, 

I have resolved upon asking for my Je me suis risolu d demander ma re- 
recall, traite. 

Determiner follows the same rule as resoudre. 
Risquer. The verb risquer, used as a neuter verb and meaning 
to run the risk of, governs de before an infinitive ; as in, 

He runs the risk of losing much if he II risque de perdre beaucoup s'il fait 
does that. cela. 

When used as an active verb and meaning to hazard, &c, risquer 
governs a before the next infinitive ; as in, 

You venture everything by taking these Vous risquez tout d prendre de tela 
means. moyens. 






VEEB. 347 

S'efforcer. S'efforcer & denotes that the object in view is to be 
attained by the unassisted efforts of the agent ; as in, 

We must endeavor to go to heaven. II faut s'efforcer d gagner la vie eter- 

nelle. 

S'efforcer de implies that the result depends as much upon circum- 
stances as upon the efforts of the agent ; as in, 

I have always endeavored to gain the Je me suis toujours efforce de gagner lea 
good graces of the prince. bonnes graces du prince. 

When the nature of the action is not expressly stated by the verb, 
de is still the appropriate preposition ; as in, 

He endeavors to succeed ; II s' efforce de parvenir ; 

parvenir is too vague in its meaning to admit of the preposition &, 
which expresses tendency to a decided object. 

S'occuper. This verb, when expressing an action which is materi- 
ally performed, governs & ; but, when signifying only a preoccupation 
of the mind, it takes de; as in, 

I am busy working at my garden. Je rrCoccupe d travailler a mon jardin. 

I am thinking about altering my garden. Je m'occupe de faire des changements a 

mon jardin. 

Suffire. Suffire governs & before a noun, and pour before an infini- 
tive ; but, when used impersonally, it takes de; as in, 

This income is not sufficient for him to Cette rente ne lui suffit pas pour vivre. 

live. 

It is enough to speak to her to make II suffit de lui parler pour la faire rou- 

her blush. gir. 

Tarder. When this verb means to delay, it generally governs & ; 
but, when used impersonally, it takes de; as in, 

They delayed too long in sending that On a trap tardi d envoyer ce secours. 

assistance. 

He is very long a coming. II tarde bien d venir. 

I long to see her. II me tarde de la voir. 

Venir and Alter. When venir is used to signify that a thing has 
just been done, it governs de before the infinitive following ; as in, 

I have just dined. Je viens de diner. 



348 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



When it expresses the idea of coming to a place for some purpose 
which has not been accomplished, it takes pour ; as in, 

I came yesterday to settle my account, Je suis venu hier pour regler mes 
but you were not at home. comptes, mais vous n'etiez pas chez 

vous. 

But this verb governs no preposition before the infinitive following, 
if the purpose for which we came has been accomplished ; as in, 

Your brother came to see me this Votre frere est venu me voir ce matin, 
morning, and we breakfasted to- et nous avons dejeune ensemble, 
gether. 

The verb alter, to go, follows the same rules in cases similar to the 
two last. 

En venir. En venir, to go so far as, to come to, &c, governs the 
preposition a before the infinitive following ; as in, 

They went so far as to tell me that lis en vinrent a me dire que votre sceur 
your sister was crazy. etait folle. 



OF VERBS WHICH SHOULD BE FOLLOWED EITHER BY DE OR X, ACCORDING 
TO EUPHONY. 

732. There is a certain number of verbs which, admitting of the 
two prepositions de and d, being placed after them before an infinitive, 
require, on account of euphony, that these prepositions should some- 
times be used contrary to the rules we have given in the preceding 
chapter. 

These verbs are the following : 

Commencer Exhorter 

Continuer Forcer 

Contraindre Manquer 

Engager Obliger. 

A should be employed after those verbs when we wish to avoid the 
repetition of the preposition de, or when de should come before a verb 
beginning with de. De should be used in order to avoid a hiatus ; that 
is to say, the meeting of two vowels, one at the end of a word, the 
other at the commencement of the next ; as in, 

He compels me to give up this enter- II me force tZ'abandonner cette entre- 
prise to others. prise a d'autres. 

According to the rule we have given, forcer, used actively, takes & 



VERB. 349 

before the infinitive following ; by complying with that rule, the 
above sentence would be : 

II me force d abandonner d d'autres, &c. ; 

but the repetition of the sound of & would be intolerable to the ear. 

He began to inquire about you when II commencait d demander de vos nou- 
you came in. velles quand vous etes entre. 

The meaning of the verb commencer, in this sentence, would require 
the use of the preposition de; but, the next verb beginning with de, 
the repetition of the same syllable would be disagreeable, and tl should 
be used in preference to de. 

These few remarks are sufficient to enable a foreigner to choose 
between the prepositions d, and de in cases similar to the preceding, 
with the verbs contained in the list w T e have given at the beginning of 
this chapter. 

OF THE NOUN AS THE OBJECT OF A VERB. 

733. A verb may govern two nouns, but not in the same manner ; 
if one of those nouns is the immediate object of the verb, that is to 
say, its direct object, the other should receive its action with the help 
of a preposition, and be called its indirect object. Thus, in this sen- 
tence, 

I prefer rest to pleasure, Jeprefere le repos auplaisir, 

repos is the direct, and plaisir the indirect, object of the verb je pre- 
fer -e. 

A verb can have, then, but one direct object ; therefore, when a 
verb has two objects, one must be direct and the other indirect ; as in, 

I have given my sister a book. J'ai donne un livre d ma sceur. 

The reason of this rule is, that an action cannot operate immediately 
and directly upon two different objects with the same impulse of the 
mind. 

When we say, that a verb ought not to have two direct objects, we 
do not mean that the direct action of a verb cannot be felt by several 
nouns, but they must then be joined together, so as to make a whole, 
by the conjunctions and, et, nor, ni, or, ou, &c. ; as in, 

I love reading, drawing, music, and J'aime la lecture, le dessin, la rausique, 
dancing, et la danse, 

30 



350 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

I love neither reading, drawing, music, Je n'aime ni la lecture, ni le dessin, ni la 

nor dancing, musique, ni la danse, 

I love either reading, or drawing, or J'aime la lecture, ou le dessin, o'u la 

music, or dancing, musique, ou la danse, 

because these different nouns receive the action of the verb through 
the same impulse, and constitute but one single operation of the mind. 



OF TWO NOUNS OR PRONOUNS USED AS THE INDIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB. 

734. A verb ought not to have two indirect objects to express the 
same relation. Thus, we must not say, 

It is you to whom I speak. C'est d vous d qui je parle. 

It is of you that I speak. C'est de vous dont je parle. 

It is to the town that I go. C'est d la ville oil je vais. 

In order to show the fault of these phrases, it is only necessary to 
suppress the word c'est, which is used here only to render more 
apparent what is spoken of ; thus we shall have, 

Je parle a vous a qui. 
Je parle de vous dont. 
Je vais a la ville a la quelle. 

In this last sentence, il la quelle is the equivalent of oil. It is, then, 
evident, that there is but one relation to be expressed by the verb, 
and, this relation being already made known by d vous, de vous, d la 
ville, the objects d qui, dont, ou, are without any function, and, conse- 
quently, improperly used. Instead of employing this useless relation, 
the two propositions, or members of these sentences, ought to be 
united by a conjunction, and that, que, be used for that purpose ; we 
must, then, say, 

C'est a vous que je parle. 
C'est de vous que je parle. 
C'est a la ville que je vais. 

Neither should we say, 

It is here where I live, C'est id ou je demeure, 

It is there where I go, C'est Id ou je vais, 

because, if, in these sentences, the verb has not two indirect objects, 
they contain two adverbs expressing the same circumstance, and one 
alone is sufficient ; we must say, then, 

C'est ici que je demeure. 
C'est Id que je vais. 



VERB. 351 

In fact, the mind has entirely accomplished its object with these 
words, je demcure ici, je vais h\ ; the adverb oil, placed after ici and Id,, 
not adding anything to the sense, ought to be suppressed, and replaced 
by the conjunction que, to unite the two propositions. 

OF THE NATURE OF THE OBJECT TO BE GIVEN TO A VERB. 

735. We must never give a verb an object different from that which 
it requires ; for instance, nuire, to hurt, parler, to speak, pardonner, 
to forgive, require an indirect object, because we say, nuire & quel- 
qu'un, to hurt some one, parler a- quelquhin, to speak to some one, 
pardonner d, qudqwun, to forgive some one ; then, we must not say, 

They have hurt each other; lis se sont nui les uns les autres; 

They have spoken to each other; lis se sont parle les uns les autres; 

Though guilty, I forgive them ; Quoique coupables, je les ai pardonnes ; 

but we ought to write, 

lis se sont nui les uns aux autres. 
lis se sont parle les uns aux autres. 
Quoique coupables, je leur ai pardonne. 

OF A NOUN trSED AS THE OBJECT OF TWO VERBS. 

736. A noun cannot be governed by two verbs, unless both act upon 
it in the same relation. 

Thus, a noun cannot be the direct object of one verb and the indi- 
rect object of another ; as in the following sentence ; 

This officer attacked the city and took Cet officier attaqua et se rendit maitre 
it ; de la ville; 

ville being the direct object of attaqua, and the indirect of se rendit 
maitre. 

A noun cannot be the indirect object of two verbs which do not 
govern the same preposition ; as in, 

Men are submissive to God, and they Les hommes sont soumis et dependent 
depend on him, de Dieu, 

because the verb etre soumis governs the preposition to, a, and depen- 
dre, the preposition of, de. 

These two sentences ought to be constructed differently, in order 
to give to each verb the object which it requires ; thus, we should 
say, 

Cet officier attaqua la ville, et s'en rendit maitre. 
Les hommes sont soumis d Dieu, et en dependent. 



352 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE FORM OF THE SEVERAL OBJECTS TO BE GIVEN TO A VERB. 

737. When a verb has different modes of governing, the same 
mode ought to be employed for every period governed by that verb ; 
thus, the following sentence is incorrect, 

These reasons will not prevent public Ces raisons n' empecheront pas Vindig- 

indignation from bursting out on all nation generate de percer de toutes 

sides, nor the right which the world parts, ni que le monde ne soit en 

has to ask great and serious repara- droit d'exiger de grandes et serieuses 

tions, reparations, 

because it is not right to give first to the verb empecher a noun for its 
direct object, and then the conjunction que before an incidental phrase 
governed by the same verb. This sentence ought to have been written 
in either of the two following ways : 

Ces raisons n' empecheront pas V indignation generale de percer de toutes parts, 
ni le droit qu'aura le monde d'exiger, &c. ; 

or, 

Ces raisons n 'empecheront pas que V indignation generale ne perce de toutes parts, 
ni que le monde n'ait le droit d'exiger, &c. ; 

because in either way the verb empecher is followed by objects of the 
same nature. 

It would be equally wrong to say, 

He loves gambling and studying, II aime le jeu et d etudier, 

They are pleased with walking and lis se plaisent d se promener et au spec- 
going to theatres, tacle, 

because the verbs aimer and se plaire have for their objects words 
which are not connected with them in the same manner. 
We ought to say, 

II aime le jeu et l'etude, 



or, 



II aime a jouer et a etudier, 

Us se plaisent a la promenade et au spectacle, 

Us se plaisent a se promener et a aller au spectacle. 



OF THE PLACE OF THE OBJECT OF A VERB. 

738. The object of a verb is generally placed after the verb, when 
that object is a noun ; as in, 

America has always conquered England UAme'rique a toujours vaincu l' Angle- 
on the sea, when fighting with an terre sur mer, en combattant a egale 
equal number of vessels of the same force, 
force. 



VERB. 353 

But, in interrogative sentences where the verb is followed by a 
personal pronoun, the object is placed before ; as in, 

What object do you see 1 Quel objet voyez-xous 1 

What is the science you devote your- A quelle science vous appliquez-xoua 1 
self to 1 



OF THE PLACE OF THE SEVERAL OBJECTS OF A VERB, IN REFERENCE TO ONE 
ANOTHER. 

739. When a verb has two objects of a different length, the shortest 
ordinarily goes first ; but, if they are of the same length, the direct 
object takes the lead ; as in, 

Hypocrites make it a study to decorate Les hypocrites se fontune etude d'orner 
vice with the appearance of virtue. le vice des dehors de la vertu. 

In this sentence, the direct object, vice, being the shortest, comes 
first ; but, in the following, 

Hypocrites make it a study to decorate, Les hypocrites s'etudient a parer, des 

with the appearance of virtue, vices dehors de la vertu, les vices les plus 

the most degrading and the most dis- honteux et les plus decries, 
reputable, 

the indirect object, being shorter than the direct, precedes it in its 
construction. 

Sometimes, however, in order to avoid an ambiguity, we are com- 
pelled to place the indirect object first, although it is of the same, or 
of a greater, length than the direct ; as in, 

The philosopher draws from nature all Le philosophe arrache d la nature tous 
its secrets. ses secrets. 

If, in this sentence, we place the direct object first, on account of 
its being of the same length as the indirect, we are at a loss to know 
if it is the secrets of nature, or of the philosopher, which are spoken 
of; in the following, 

The Gospel teaches those who wish to L'Evangile inspire aux personnes qui 
be really devoted to God, a sincere veulent etre sincerement a Dieu,une 
and unsuspicious piety. piete sincere et non suspecte. 

The indirect object, although of a greater length than the direct, is 
placed first, because, if it came after, we should not perceive at once 
whether the words aux personnes were governed by the verb inspirer, 
or by the adjective non suspecte. 
30* 



354 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OP ACTIVE VERBS, USED WITHOUT ANY OBJECT BEING EXPRESSED AFTER 
THEM. 

740. Although an active verb ought to have a direct object, it is 
sometimes used without, but only when taken in the whole extent of 
its signification ; we find in Racine, 

Eh bien, connais done, Phedre et toute sa fureur ! 
J'aime ! ne pense pas qu'au moment que je' t'aime, 
Innocente a mes yeux, je m'approuve moi-m6me. 

OP THE RELATION EXISTING BETWEEN PASSIVE VERBS AND THEIR OBJECTS. 

741. (See the remarks which have been made on this subject in 
our Exercise Book, page 70, in the chapter entitled, " On verbs gov- 
erning the preposition of, de, before an infinitive.") 

OP PRONOUNS USED AS THE OBJECTS OF A VERB. 

742. (We refer the student to what we have already said, when 
speaking of objective pronouns.) 



QUESTIONS 



719. In what person should a verb be used in reference to its nominative 1 

720. In what person should a verb be used, when, among its several nomina- 
tives separated by the conjugation and, there is a pronoun of the first person 1 
or if, there being no pronoun of the first person, there is one of the second 1 or, 
finally, when the several nominatives are all in the third person 1 

721. Is the same rule applicable when the several nominatives are separated 
by the conjunction or? 

722. In what person should a verb generally be used, when it has for its nom- 
inative the relative pronoun qui? 

723. In what person should a verb be used, when, having the pronoun qui for 
its nominative, this pronoun is immediately preceded by an adjective 1 

724. In what person should a verb be used, when, having the pronoun qui for 
its nominative, this pronoun is immediately preceded by an adjective used as a 
noun, that is to say, accompanied by the or a? 

725. In what person should a verb be used, when its nominative, qui, has a 
noun for its antecedent 1 

725. What is always the person of the verb when the sentence is negative 1 

726. What idea is attached to a word, when that word is said to be the 
object of a verb 1 

726. In how many ways can a word restrain the signification of a verb 1 

726. What do we understand when we say that a word is either the direct or 
the indirect object of a verb 1 

726. What questions should be asked in order to ascertain which word in a 
sentence is either the direct or indirect object of a verb 1 

726. What sort of words can a verb have for its objects 1 






VERB. 355 

727. When a verb has another verb for its object, in what mood should this 
last verb be 1 

727. How can a verb in the infinitive be the object of another verb 1 

727. Are there not some verbs which require no preposition before the infini- 
tive which they govern, whilst some are followed by a, others by de, and a cer- 
tain number take either d or de, according to dieir signification, or to their being 
used either in the active or the passive form 1 

(The teacher should not require his pupils to learn by heart the verbs con- 
tained in the lists marked 728, 729, 730, but he should insist that they should 
always consult them, in order to acquire with time the faculty of seeing at once 
to which of these classes belongs the verb which they are about to employ.) 

731. (The list of verbs contained in paragraph 731 should be learned by 
heart, and the teacher should question his pupils on each of them separately, and 
exact from them that they should learn with precision in what signification those 
verbs should govern either of the prepositions d or de.) 

732. Are there not some verbs which govern either d or de, on account of 
euphony alone, and which are they 1 (The teacher should then ask of his pupils 
in what case these verbs take after them one or the other of these prepositions.) 

733. 734. When a verb governs two nouns, can it do it in the same manner 1 
If one is its direct object, what must the other be 1 If both are its indirect ob- 
jects, can they be governed by the same preposition, unless they are united by a 
conjunction 1 

735. Can a verb be indifferently followed by its object, without regard to its 
signification 1 

736. Can a noun be the object of two verbs, and in what case 1 

736. Can a noun be the object of two verbs which do not govern the same 
preposition 1 

737. When a verb has several modes of governing, should the same mode be 
employed for every period governed by that verb 1 

737. Can a verb have two objects of a different nature, such as a verb and a 
noun 1 

738. What is the place of the object of a verb, when that object is either a 
noun or a verb, in affirmative and interrogative sentences 1 

739. When a verb has two objects, which should be placed first, if they are 
of the same length 1 What should be done if they are not of the same length 1 

739. Does not the want of clearness sometimes require the preceding rule to 
be disregarded 1 

740. Is not an active verb sometimes used without any object, and in what 
sense 1 

741. What prepositions do passive verbs generally govern 1 

(The teacher should require his pupils to study the rules given in the Exercise 
Book, page 70, in the chapter entitled, " On verbs governing the preposition de 
before an infinitive.") 

741. What should be the meaning of a sentence for a passive verb to be used 
either with de or par? 

741. What should be the meaning of a sentence for a verb either active or 
passive to be followed either by de or avec? 

742. What should be the place of the personal pronouns when used as the 
objects of a verb 1 (The teacher should here ask his pupils the questions 
which have already been given when speaking of personal pronouns used objec- 
tively.) 



356 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE USE OF THE SEVERAL MOODS. 

743. The indicative mood is the mood of affirmation ; therefore, 
whenever we wish to affirm in a positive and determinate manner that 
a fact does or does not exist, we make use of this mood ; as in, 

I say that you are right in going to Je dis que vous avez raison d'aller en 

France. France. 

I do not say that you are right in going Je ne dis pas que vous avez raison 

to France. d'aller en France. 

Do you think that I am right in going Croyez-vous que j'ai raison d'aller en 

to France 1 France 1 

Do you not believe that I am right in Ne croyez-vous pas que j'ai raison 

going to France 1 d'aller en France 1 

These four sentences are used in the indicative mood, because they 
do not imply any idea of doubt, or any emotion or impulse of the soul ; 
they are mere affirmations, and signify, the 1st, 

You are right in going to France, and I say so. 

The 2d, 

You are right in going to France, but I do not say so. 

The 3d, 

I am right in going to France ; but do you believe it 1 

The 4th, 

I am right in going to France ; do you not think so 1 

We shall see, when speaking of the subjunctive mood, what should 
be done if there was any doubt in the mind of the person who 



744. The conditional mood is still a mood of affirmation, but the 
affirmative is no longer positive and determinate ; it is subordinate 
to a condition expressed or understood, without which the action 
expressed by the verb used in that mood would not take place ; this 
mood is used in French as it is in English, except in a few cases, 
which we have mentioned when speaking of the several tenses of the 
indicative mood, and requires no more explanation. 

745. The imperative mood, which is used to express a desire or an 
order, presents no difficulty, and is employed in the same manner in 
both languages. 

The only two moods which present difficulties are the subjunctive 



VERB. 



357 



and infinitive moods. We will examine them separately, and 
endeavor to show, in a clear and distinct manner, when, why, and 
how they should be used in French. 

OF THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

746. A verb is not required to be used in the subjunctive mood, in 
French, on account merely of such words being employed in the 
framing of a sentence, but on account of the meaning attached to those 
words ; it is the mood of doubt and emotions, and is employed when- 
ever the mind, being excited in some way, is out of its natural state of 
positive affirmation. We shall examine separately every case in 
which this mood should be used, so as to show that the state or nature 
of feelings, and not merely words alone, require the use of that mood. 
There are, it is true, a few cases in which the subjunctive mood is 
used on account of custom alone ; but these cases are very seldom 
met with, and we shall mention them in time. 

A verb cannot be used in the subjunctive mood unless it is pre- 
ceded by another verb followed by a conjunction or relative pronoun, 
which verb, on account of its peculiar signification, requires the use 
of that mood. This first verb is not always expressed, but it is 
always easily supplied by the analysis of the sentence. A sentence 
in which the subjunctive mood is employed is, then, most generally 
composed of two propositions ; the first, the meaning of which governs 
that mood, is called the principal proposition, and the second, which 
obeys the impulse of the first, the incidental or subordinate proposi- 
tion. 

Let us examine, now, what should be the meaning of a sentence, 
for the second verb to be used in the subjunctive mood. 



OF CASES IN* WHICH THE MEANING OF THE FIRST VERB REQUIRES THAT THE 
SECOND SHOULD BE USED IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

747. The subjunctive mood being, as we have already mentioned, 
the mood of emotion and doubt, whenever the verb of the principal 
proposition expresses an emotion of the soul, or a doubt, that of the 
incidental proposition is used in the subjunctive mood ; as in, 



I want you 
I order you 
I forbid you 
I will hinder you 
I wish you 
I desire you 
I demand of you 
I require you 



to do this. 



Je veux 
J'ordonne 
Je defends 
J'empecherai 
Je souhaite 
Je desire 
Je demande 
Vexige 



que vous fassiez cela. 



358 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



I like to have people do their duty. 

I admire to see people do their duty. 

I approve of your doing this. ) 

I consent to your doing this. $ 

I permit you to do this. ^ 

I find no fault in your doing this. S- 

I find fault in your doing this. ) 

I pray they may be forgiven. > 

I beg they may be forgiven. $ 

I fear your 

I am apprehensive of your 

I dread your i. doing this. 

I tremble at your 

I am afraid of your 

I am astonished at your doing this. > 

I doubt your doing this. $ 

I deny having done this. 

I am delighted 



J'aime } ,, e , . , 

r admire \ * ue Von f™ se son devou "- 

feZnsms I * ue ^nsfassiez cela. 



Je permets 

Je trouve bon 

Je trouve mauvais 



que vousfassiez 
cela. 



I am rejoiced 
I am satisfied 
I am joyous 
I am glad 
I am sorry 
I am grieved 
I am mortified 
I am surprised 
I see with pleasure 
I see with sorrow 



you have done 

* tWta 



this 



Jerome l^'onhurpardonne. 

Je crains "\ 

i , apprehende 

Je redoute Kque vous nefassiez cela. 

Je tremble 

Vaipeur J 

Je m'etonne ) /• • • 

Jedoute $<?"« vous /a S «ez cela. 

Je nie quej'aie fait cela. 
Je suis ravi, charme, en-' 

chantey 
Je suis heureux 
Je suis content 
Je suis joy eux 
Je suis bien aise 
Je suis f ache 
Je suis peine 
Je suis mortifie 
Je suis surpris 
Je vois avec plaisir 
Je vois avec peine 



que vous 
ayez fait 
cela. 



Any expression of the same nature as those given in this list, 
requires to be followed by the subjunctive mood. 

OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH THE VERB TO HOPE, ESPERER. 

748. The verb to hope, esperer, although expressing, to some 
extent, an emotion of the soul, is always followed by the indicative 
mood, when used affirmatively. This arises from the nature of the 
feeling of hope : for, although the thing we hope for may happen or 
not happen, and is, therefore, doubtful ; nevertheless, we always think 
it will take place, which gives to the idea which fills our mind a char- 
acter of positiveness which prompts us to use the indicative ; as in, 

I hope my son will return from the army Pespere que mon fils reviendra de 1'armee 
safe and sound. sain et sauf. 

When used negatively, this verb governs the subjunctive ; because, 
then, the doubt about the realization of the fact we do not hope for, 
exists in all its intensity ; as in, 






I do not hope my son will return from Je n'espere pas que mon fils revienne de 
the array safe and sound. l'armee sain et sauf. 



VERB. 359 

OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN NEGATIVE SENTENCES. 

749. We may deny the existence of a fact in as positive a maimer 
as we may affirm that this fact does exist ; when such is the case, a 
negative sentence is a mere affirmation in the negative form, and does 
not require the use of the subjunctive mood; but, if there is any idea 
of doubt or feeling implied in the negative expression, the second 
verb should obey that impulse of the mind, and be put in the mood 
of doubt or feeling, that is to say, in the subjunctive mood. Therefore, 
the English sentence, 

I do not say that you are sick, 

if intended to express, I know that you are not sick, and I do not say 
that you are, being then a mere affirmation in reference to a fact, which 
leaves not the least doubt in the mind of the person who speaks, 
should be rendered by the indicative mood ; as in, 

Je ne dis pas que vous etes malade. 

But, if this sentence was intended to signify, You may be sick or not; 
I know nothing of it ; but however, I do not say that you are ; there 
would be a doubt about the fact of the person spoken to being sick or 
not, and this doubt should be conveyed by the use of the subjunctive 
mood; as in, 

Je ne dis pas que vous soyez malade. 

If, being acquainted individually with two persons, I was not aware 
that they knew each other, and I should meet them together acting 
like friends, I should at once experience a feeling of surprise, and tell 
them, with the subjunctive mood : 

I did not know you were friends. Je ne savais pas que vous fassiez ami3. 

But, if this feeling of surprise had time to disappear before I addressed 
these two persons, which would be the case, if, meeting them at a 
party, for instance, I had an opportunity to see them together for some 
time before I could speak to them, the above sentence would only 
express: You were friends, indeed, before this time; I see it very well, 
but I did not know it; and would be a mere affirmation, without any 
mixture of doubt or feeling ; it should, then, be rendered by the indic- 
ative mood ; as, 

Je ne savais pas que vous etiez amis. 

The same mode of reasoning, applied to negative sentences, will 
always show clearly in what mood the second verb should be used ; 



360 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

but they generally require the use of the subjunctive mood, because 
it is not natural to our mind to use this form of language in an abso- 
lute and positive manner, as we do an affirmation ; it is but very sel- 
dom that we deny the existence of a fact without some idea of doubt 
or feeling being united with the mere denial of that fact. We will, 
then, establish the following rule : 

750. Rule. The principal position of a sentence being negative, 
the incidental is generally used in the subjunctive mood; but, if that 
sentence only signifies that the fact or situation expressed by the 
second verb exists, or does not exist, without any idea of doubt or 
feeling being implied in its meaning, that verb should be used in the 
indicative mood. 

OF THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

751. A question may be asked for two distinct purposes ; either to 
receive information in reference to a fact we do not know, or to ascer- 
tain whether the person we address knows or not a fact we do know ; 
in the former case, the verb expressing the fact on which there is a 
doubt is used in the subjunctive mood, and in the latter, the second 
verb, implying an idea of positiveness, is used in the indicative, 
whether the interrogative sentence be in the affirmative or negative 
form. 

Supposing that a person who is really sick had a fit of sickness in 
the presence of another who till then had thought him in good health, 
and should exclaim : 

Well, do you at last believe that I am sick 1 

or, 

Well, do you not believe now that I am sick 1 

the indicative mood ought to be used in order to show that the person 
who speaks is positively sure that he is sick ; and these two sentences 
should be expressed by, 

Eh bien ! croyez-vous enfin que je suis malade 1 
and 

Eh bien ! ne croyez-vous pas maintenant que je suis malade 1 

But, if, doubting whether I am sick or not, I should ask of my phy- 
sician : 

Do you think, or do you not think, that I am sick 1 



VERB. 361 

the subjunctive mood should express the doubt in which I am about 
the state of my health, and the sentence be rendered by, 

Croyez-\ous, or ne croyez-vous pas, que je sois malade 1 

If I should use the following sentence : 

Why do you think your father will come T 

either affirmatively or negatively, being positively sure that the father 
will come, I should say, with the indicative : 

Pourquoi pensez-vous, or ne pensez-vous pas, que votre p£re viendra? 

But, if, not knowing whether the father will come or not, I wished 
to ascertain why the person spoken to thinks that he will or will not 
come, I should use the subjunctive, and say : 

Pourquoi pensez-vous, or ne pensez-vous pas, que votre pere vienne? 

752. Remark. When a question is*asked with the verb savoir, to 
know, and an idea of doubt or uncertainty is implied in the meaning 
of the verb of the incidental proposition, usage requires that the con- 
junction whether, si, with the indicative, should be used instead of que 
with the subjunctive ; as in, 

Do you know that Miss C is Savez-vous que Mademoiselle C 

married 1 est mariee "? 

and 

Do you know whether Miss C Savez-vous si Mademoiselle C-^ 

is married 1 est mariee 1 

Que with the subjunctive mood, in the latter case, would not be a 
fault against grammar, but the sentence would not be idiomatical. 

OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

753. Impersonal verbs, whether affirmative or negative, govern the 
subjunctive mood, except those which imply in their meaning a char- 
acter of positiveness ; such as, it is sure, positive, evident, certain, 
clear, there is, &c. ; but these verbs, used negatively, cease to form 
an exception, because they assume, then, a character of uncertainty 
which no longer admits of the use of the indicative. 

The use of the subjunctive mood with impersonal verbs is the con- 
sequence of the meaning of those verbs, which always imply an idea 
of necessity, duty, feeling, or doubt. 

It i» just that the laws should be II est juste que les lois soient respectees. 
obeyed. 

31 



362 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It is necessary that we should go to // faut, or il est necessaire, que nous 

France. allions en France. 

It is sure, positive, evident, &c, that II est siir,positif, Evident, Sic, que vous 

you are in the wrong. avez tort. 

There are griefs which time can alle- II y a des chagrins que le temps pent 

viate. adoucir. 

There is no grief but time at length II n'y a pas de chagrin que le temps 

alleviates. a la fin n'adoucisse. 

It is not sure, positive, &c, that the // n'est pas sur, positif, &c, que le roi 

king is dead. soit mort. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH THE IMPERSONAL VERB IT IS LIKELY, 
IL EST PROBABLE. 

754. The impersonal expression it is likely, il est probable, although 
it does not seem to imply an idea of positiveness, like it is sure, posi- 
tive, &c., governs the indicative mood. The analysis of the following 
sentence will show the necessity there is for using this mood. When 
I say, 

It is likely that I will go to Europe next year, 

my mind is determined in reference to my going to Europe ; there is 
no doubt, no uncertainty, about my will ; and if I do not say : 

It is certain that I will go to Europe, 

it is only because circumstances might happen, independent of that 
will, which might prevent me from going ; the indicative mood should, 
then, be used to indicate that state of my mind ; but, if the expression, 
it is likely, were used negatively, the positiveness of my determination 
would disappear, and the consequence of this uncertainty would 
require the verb to be employed in the subjunctive mood ; as in, 

H est probable que j'irai en Europe l'annee prochaine. 

II n'est pas probable que 'faille en Europe Pannee prochaine. 



OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH THE IMPERSONAL VERB IT SEEMS, IL 
SEMBLE. 

755. Grammarians have established the following rule, which 
agrees with the general principle regulating the use of the subjunc- 
tive mood. Whenever the verb it seems, il semble, is followed by 
another verb expressing a fact which is either impossible or improba- 
ble, this latter verb is used in the subjunctive mood ; as in, 

The whole world seemed to have been II semblait qu'on eut la rassemble l'uni- 

assembled there. vers. 

The veil seems to embellish a young H semble que le voile embellisse une jeune 

girl. fille. 



VERB. 363 

These deserts seemed to have lost their II semblait que ces deserts n'eussent 
wild appearance. plus rien de sauvage. 

My heart seemed as if it would break II sejnblait que mon coeur voulut se 
in two. fendre par la moitie. 

Each of these sentences expresses an impossibility ; for there is no 
place where the whole universe can be assembled ; a veil does not 
alter the face of anybody ; a desert has always a wild appearance ; and 
our heart cannot split in two. 

But if the second verb should express a fact which is either possi- 
ble or probable, this verb should be in the indicative mood ; as in, 

The ancients did not pay much atten- Les anciens n'arretaient pas longtems 

lion to infancy; they seemed to think leurs regards sur l'enfance; il semble 

that the idea attached to the clothes qu'Us trouvaient quelque chose de 

of a cradle was rather too childish trop naif dans les langes d'un 

for them. berceau. 

It seems that I ought to have given II semble que yaurais du avoir donne 

these directions at the beginning of ces avis au commencement de mon 

my work on logic. ouvrage sur la logique. 

It is neither impossible nor improbable that the ideas which could 
arise from the contemplation of the clothes of a cradle appeared 
rather childish to the ancients, nor that the directions mentioned in 
the second sentence would have been better placed at the commence- 
ment of the work spoken of. 

He seems to be crazy, II semble qu'il est fou, 

signifies that he is crazy according to all appearances ; but, 

II semble qu'i\ soit fou, 

means that, although he is not crazy, he acts as a crazy man would. 

756. Remark. Whenever the impersonal verb il semble is accompa- 
nied by an objective pronoun, as in, II me semble, il nous semble, &c, 
it follows the same rule as it seems, il semble; but the verb having then 
lost a part of its vagueness, is oftener used with the indicative than 
with the subjunctive mood. 

757. The impersonal verb, il parait, it appears, always governs the 
indicative mood ; as in, 

You appear to be sick. Il parait que vous etes malade. 



364 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

But this verb, as well as il semble and il me sernble, when used neg- 
atively, always governs the subjunctive ; as in, 

He does not seem to be much in love R ne semble pas qu'i\ soit tr£s amoureux 

with his bride. de sa future. 

It does not seem to me that you are II ne me semble pas que vous soyez tres 

much afflicted. afflige. 

You do not appear to be sick. Il ne par ait pas que vous soyez malade. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH THE EXPRESSIONS ON DIRAIT, ONE WOULD 
SAY, ON CROIRAIT, ONE WOULD BELIEVE, ON AURAIT DIT, AND ON AURAIT 
CRU, ONE WOULD HAVE SAID OR BELIEVED. 

758. Whenever the fact represented by the verb which follows any 
of the expressions, on croirait, on dirait, on await cru, &c, is either 
impossible or improbable, that verb is used in the subjunctive mood ; 
as in, 

One would say that the book of eternal On dirait, or on croirait, que le livre des 

laws has been opened to the proph- decrets eternels ait ete await aux 

ets. prophetes. 

What magnificent fireworks ! one would Quel beau feu d'artifice ! on aurait dit, 

have said, or believed, that the stars on aurait pu croire, que toutes lea 

were falling in crowds from heaven. etoiles tombassent du ciel. 

The subjunctive is used in these two sentences, because it is impos- 
sible for a man to read in the book of eternal laws, and for the stars 
to fall from heaven. 

But the indicative should be used after the same expressions, when 
the things spoken of are either possible or probable ; as in, 

One would say, or think, that this man On dirait, or on croirait, que cet homme 

is crazy or deaf. est fou ou sourd. 

One would say, or think, that life is a On dirait, on croirait, que la vie est un 

gift which we receive only to trans- don que nous ne recevons que pour le 

mit it to others. transmettre a d'autres. 

The indicative is used in these two sentences, because it is possible 
for a man to be crazy or deaf, and it is neither impossible nor improb- 
able that life be a gift which we received only to transmit it to others ; 
at least, the person who speaks thinks so. 

When used negatively, these expressions follow the same rule. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH THE VERBS ENTENDRE, PRETENDRE, 
DIRE SUPPOSER, AND SE PLAINDRE. 

759. When entendre means to hear, pretendre and dire mean to 
say, to affirm ; suppose?- signifies to presume, and se plaindre, to com- 
plain, they all govern the indicative mood ; but when either of these 



VERB. 



365 



verbs expresses either a strong determination of the mind, or an idea 
of doubt or feeling, they should be followed by the subjunctive ; as in, 



By the sound of the voice and the in- 
strument, I hear that it is your sister 
who sings and plays. 

[ do not want you to be at any expense 
for me. 

I want you to do your duty. 

I maintain that his right is incontest- 
able. 

I mean to be obeyed. 

I shall say that he has always done his 
duty. 

I shall say that he must do his duty. 

I should suppose him to be an honest 
man. 

Suppose gold to be as common as iron, 
one would not be worth more than 
the other. 

He complains that his son has been 
badly received. 

What I complain of is, that you have 
not learned your lesson. 



Au son de la voix et a celui de l'instru- 
ment, yentends que c'est votre sceur 
qui chante et qui joue. 

Je n'entends pas que vous fassiez de 
depenses pour moi. 

J'entends que vous fassiez votre devoir. 

Je pretends que son droit est incontest- 
able. 

Je pretends qu'on m'obeisse. 

Je dirai qu'i\ a toujours fait son devoir. 

Je dirai qu'Wfasse son devoir. 

Je suppose (I think) qu'il est honnele 

homme. 
Supposez que l'or soit aussi commun 

que le fer, Pun ne vaudrait pas plus 

que l'autre. 
II se plaint que son fils ait ete mal 

recu. 
Je me plains que vous n'avez pas appris 

votre lee on. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH THE VERBS ORDONNER, COMMANDER, 
RESOUDRE. A RENTER, EXIGER, DECIDER, ETC. 

760. The subjunctive is used after the verbs ordonner, commander, 
resoudre. arreter, exiger, &c, or any other implying the same mean- 
ing, whenever the action expressed by the verb following is to take 
place immediately; but the verb is used in the future, or in the condi- 
tional, if the action which it represents is to take place at a more or 
less distant period ; as in, 



The governor ordered that we should 

go to Thebes, to be introduced to the 

king. 
Servius ordered that the people should 

be assembled immediately, to go and 

defend his friend. 



Le gouverneur ordonna que nous irions 
a Thebes, pour etre presentes au roi. 

Servius ordonna qu'on assembl&t le 
peuple immediatement , pour marcher 
a la defense de son ami. 



The first sentence only signifies that the persons spoken of should 
go to Thebes according to an order delivered to that effect ; there is, 
then, no idea of necessity expressed ; the period of time elapsed 
between the order and its execution destroys the idea of imperative- 
ness always attached to manifestation of an absolute command ; hence 
the use of the indicative ; whilst, in the latter case, there is an idea of 
necessity or danger, which preoccupies the mind, and shows its state 
of excitement ; hence the subjunctive. 
31* 



366 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD WITH THE CONJUNCTION IF, SI, AND WITH QUE, 
USED INSTEAD OF SI. 

761. The verb which follows si, if, immediately, is never used in 
French in the subjunctive mood, as it is sometimes the case in 
English ; but the verb of the incidental proposition, coming after que, 
or any of the relative pronouns, is used in the subjunctive, if it ex- 
presses a fact implying an idea of doubt or uncertainty, and in the 
indicative, if, on the contrary, it represents the idea of a fact as being 
positive and undeniable ; therefore, the following sentence, 

If you think the soul to be immortal, Si vous croyez que l'ame soit immor- 
telle, &c., 

with the verb to be in the subjunctive, signifies, 

If it were a fact that the soul is immortal, which fact is still doubtful to me, &c. 

But with the indicative, as in, 

Si vous croyez que l'ame est immortelle, 

it signifies, 

The soul is immortal, and if you believe it, &c. 

The same mode of reasoning applies to the following sentences : 

If you say that the world is the result Si vous elites que le monde est, or soit, 

of chance, &c. le resultat du hazard, &c. 

If one supposes that matter has the Si 1 'on suppose que la matiere peut , or 

power of thinking, &c. puisse, penser, &c. 

The following sentence, 

If you perceive that the children steal the fruit, let me know it, 

cannot be used in the indicative mood, because the fact of the fruit 
being stolen rests on an eventuality, which the meaning of the first 
verb leaves in a complete state of doubt ; it should, then, be expressed 

by, 

Si vous vous appercevez que les enfants volent le fruit, faites le moi savoir. 

762. Remark. If the conjunction si does not admit of the verb fol- 
lowing being used in the subjunctive mood, it is because this mood 
always requires to be preceded by another verb expressed or under 
stood, followed either by the conjunction que, or any of the relative 
pronouns, which is not the case after si ; but should several proposi- 



VERB. 367 

tions begin with that conjunction, as usage requires that, instead of 
repeating si at the commencement of each, que should be used in 
its place, the verb following should then be in the subjunctive, 
because the conjunction que standing then for suppose that, and pre- 
g a verb implying the idea of a doubt, would require the use of 
that mood ; as in, 

If you take vour lessons regularly, and Si vous prenez vos lecons reguliere- 

(if you) study besides two or three ment, et que rvus etudiiez de plus deux 

hours a day, you will make great heures par jour, vous ferez de grands 

progress. progres. 

If be goes to China and (if he) escapes S'il va a la Chine et qu'i] echappe aux 

the dangers of the sea, he will make dangers de la mer, it fera sa fortune, 
a fortune. 

763. Remark 2d. This is the only instance in which que, being used 
to avoid the repetition of a conjunction, does not govern the same 
mood as that conjunction itself. 

764. Remark 3d. Si, a conjunction, should not be mistaken for si, 
an adverb, expressed in English by so, and which has no influence 
over the mood of the verb which follows it ; as in. 

She is so foolish that she does not see Elle est si sotte qu'elle ne voit pas 
that they wish to impose upon her. qu'on veut se moquer d'elle. 

She is not so foolish but she sees well Elle n'est pas si sotte qu'elle ne voit 
that you wish to impose upon her. bien que vous voulez vous moquer 

d'elle. 

The first of these two sentences is used in the indicative, on account 
of the first proposition being affirmative ; and the latter is in the 
subjunctive, on account of the first proposition being negative ; the 
former signifies : 

She is very foolish, and does not see, &c, 

(which is a mere affirmation,) whilst the latter means : 

She may be foolish, but that does not prevent her from seeing, &c, 

and the verb empecher, to prevent, implying an idea of feeling, requires 
the use of the subjunctive. 



OF THE srEJCNCTTVE MOOD AFTER CONJUNCTIONS ENDING WITH QUE. 

765. A certain number of conjunctions ending with que always 
govern the subjunctive mood after them ; but it is only because the 
sentences in which they are employed require, on account of their 



368 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



meaning, 
lowing : 



the use of that mood. These conjunctions are the fol- 



Afin que, 
A moins que 
Avant que, 
Au cas que, 
En cas que, 
Loin que, 
Bien loin que 
Bien que, ) 
Quoique, $ 
De peur que, 
De crainte que, 



.'} 



in order that. 

unless. 

before. 

in case that. 

far from, 
so far from. 

although, 
for fear. 



Non que, ^ 
Non pas que, > 
Pas que, j 

Pourvu que, 
Suppose que, 

Sans que, 
Jusqu'a ce que, 
Pour que, 
Soit que, 
Pour peu que, ) 
Si peu que, $ 



not that. 

provided. 

suppose that. (Obso- 
lete.) 
without, 
until. 

in order that, 
whether. 

(Obsolete.) 



and a few others, but which have become obsolete, and are but seldom 
if ever used in the present state of the language. The following 
examples will show that the meaning of the sentences in which these 
conjunctions are employed requires the subjunctive mood, indepen- 
dently of the conjunctions themselves. 

Help me, if you please, in order that, Aidez-moi, je vous prie, afin que, or 
or so that, I may have done my task pour que, 'faiefini ma tache a tems. 
in time. 

This sentence denotes desire, anxiety, purpose, &c. 

1 will go and see you before you start J'irai vous voir avant que vous ne par- 
tor Europe. tiez pour l'Europe. 

There is doubt, uncertainty, whether the person spoken of will start 
or not ; for he may die or change his mind before starting. 

I v.'ill go into the country to-morrow J'irai demain a la campagne, en cas, or 
in case the weather should be fine. au cas, qu'i\fasse beau temps. 

There is doubt whether the weather will be fine or not. 

So far is he from repenting it, that, on Bien loin qu'il s'en repente, au contraire, 
the contrary, he is always committing il continue toujours d'en faire de plus 
new faults. belles. 

The first proposition of this sentence shows a feeling of aversion to 
repentance, which requires the subjunctive, like any other emotion of 
the soul. 






Although she is very pretty, I cannot Bien qu'eWe soit, or quoiqu'eMe soit, tres 
endure her. jolie, je ne puis la souffrir. 

This conjunction governs the subjunctive on account of the idea of 
opposition which it always supposes ; it always implies the idea of 



VERB. 369 

something which ought to be done or felt, and which is not, on 
account of some peculiar disposition in our mind. In this case, for 
instance, it would be natural to love the person spoken of, since she is 
very pretty, but, for some cause or other, she is not loved ; and it is 
that idea of opposition which prompts the use of the subjunctive mood. 

Let us shut the door, for fear we should Fermons la porte, de peur que, or de 
be seen. crainte qu'on ne nous voie. 

The feeling of fear manifested in this sentence requires the sub- 
junctive. 

Let us shut the door, not that I fear we Fermons la porte, non que, nonpas que, 
should be seen, but we shall feel or pas que, (obsolete,) je craigne 
more at ease. qu'on nous voie, mais nous serons 

plus a notre aise. 

These conjunctions govern the subjunctive on account of their nega- 
tive meaning implying an idea of denial, which, denoting an impulse 
of the" soul, requires the use of that mood. 

I forgive you, provided you promise me Je vous pardonne, pourvu que vous me 
to behave better. promettiez de vous mieux conduire. 

Pourvu que always implies the idea of a condition or obligation 
imposed upon a person, and this impulse of the mind requires the 
subjunctive . 

He never goes out without you scoldiug II ne sort jamais sans que vous le 
him. grondiez. 

Sans que always implies the idea of something taking place although 
it ought not, and from this contradiction arises the use of the sub- 
junctive. 

I will wait till you have done. J'attendrai jusqu'd ce que vous ayez 

fini. 

The uncertainty lies here upon the length of the period at the end 
of which the action expressed by the verb following the conjunction is 
to take place. 

You shall learn your lesson whether you Vous apprendrez votre lecon soit que 
are willing or not. vous le vouliez ou non. 

The doubt is so plainly shown in this case, that it requires no 
explanation. 

From these examples, and the explanations which accompany them, 
it is evident that the subjunctive is still, here, the result of the dispo- 



370 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

sition of the mind, and it is useless to commit these conjunctions to 
memory, as words ; the analysis of the sentences in which they are 
used leaves no doubt in reference to the mood they should govern. 

OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE. 

766. The subjunctive mood always supposes the existence of an- 
other verb which governs it ; when, therefore, it is found at the 
beginning of a sentence, it can only be on account of such a verb being 
understood, of which elegance and usage authorize the suppression ; 
as in ; 

Let me die on the spot if I have told Que je meure sur le champ si je vous 
you an untruth. ai dit un mensonge. 

/ wish is understood and suppressed in order to render the expres- 
sion more impressive. 

May you live happy together many Puissiez-vous vivre heureux ensemble 
years. pendant de longues annees. 

Same remark. 

767. Remark. The subjunctive mood is sometimes found with the 
verb savoir, used negatively, without any verb understood before it, 
and without any other reason than usage ; thus we say : 

I am not aware that anybody has ever Je ne sache pas que personne m'ait 
deceived me. jamais trompe. 

This expression is purely idiomatical, and only used in cases similar 
to the preceding. 

OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER A SUPERLATIVE RELATIVE. 

768. The verb which follows a superlative relative from which it is 
separated by one of the relative pronouns, is used in the subjunctive 
mood whenever the sentence expresses a doubt or a feeling ; but, if 
that sentence is a mere affirmation, or statement without the soul 
being excited by any of the feelings natural to man, the verb which 
follows the superlative is used in the indicative mood. If, speaking 
of a lady, I should say : 

There is the most handsome woman I have ever seen ! 

I should yield to a strong feeling of admiration, and I should express 
it by saying, with the subjunctive mood : 

Voici la plus belle femme que j'aie jamais vue I 



VERB. 371 

But. if, there being several ladies together, I should happen to know 
the most handsome of them, and, without being acquainted with her 
name, I wished to mention this fact by saying : 

Of these ladies, it is the most handsome that I know; 

meaning simply, J know only one of these ladies, and it is the most 
handsome of them; this sentence would be a mere affirmation, in 
which the superlative, the most handsome, would stand instead of the 
name of the lady, which I cannot make use of because I do not know 
it; the indicative mood would then show that state of my mind, and 
•I should say : 

De toutes ces dames, c'est la plus belle que je connais. 

It is evident, that, in this sentence, there is no feeling of admiration 
for the beauty of the lady ; hence the indicative. 
If, when saying, 

The Bellerophon is the largest vessel that France has ever built, 

I only mean, France has built many large vessels, and the Bellerophon 
is the largest, I only affirm a fact, without my mind being excited by 
any kind of feeling, and I say, with the indicative : 

Le Bellerophon est leplus grand vaisseau que la France a jamais construit. 

But, if I wonder at the size of the vessel, and look upon it as an 
achievement worthy of admiration ; or if, other nations having many 
vessels larger than this one, I wish to depreciate the merit which, 
otherwise, France might have had in building such a vessel ; in the 
first instance, the feeling of admiration, in the latter, that of abuse, 
which then would occupy my soul would require the use of the sub- 
junctive, and I should say : 

Le Bellerophon est le plus grand vaisseau que la France ait jamais construit. 

The same mode of reasoning should be applied when the sentence, 
instead of being affirmative, assumes the negative form. 

769. Remark. Although either mood can be used after a superla- 
tive, the subjunctive is more generally employed than the indicative, 
on account of the character of the expression itself ; for it is not natural 
that we should place a person or a thing above or below all others 
of the same kind without experiencing some feeling of admiration or 
contempt. 



372 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER THE EXPRESSIONS LE SETJL, L' UNIQUE, 
LE PREMIER, AND LE DERNIER. 

770. The following expressions, le seul, Vunique, the only one, 
le premier, the first, and le dernier, the last, govern either the indica- 
tive or the subjunctive, according to the views of the mind. Do we 
wish to affirm directly, positively, and without any accessory idea 
either of doubt, uncertainty, fear, surprise, &c, they are followed by 
the indicative ; do we, on the contrary, speak of a thing as being 
vague, doubtful, or which, at least, we consider as such, the subjunc- 
tive is required after them. Such are the only rules which can be 
established in such cases ; the person who speaks or writes should 
always consult his own mind before making use of either mood ; 
as in, 

I am the only one who knows you. Je suis le seul qui vous connaisse. 

This sentence with the subjunctive implies either an idea of admira- 
tion or contempt for the person spoken of, or of pride in the person 
who speaks. 

My money is concealed in a place which Mon argent est cache dans un lieu que 
is known to you alone. vous seul connaissez. 

This sentence only signifies : 

You know where my money is, and nobody knows it but you ; 

it is a mere affirmation ; hence the indicative. 

A person who has made the same calculation twice, and who, 
having obtained different results, discovers that the error was made in 
the first, would say, with the indicative : 

It is the first time that the mistake was C'est la premiere fois que je me suis 
made. trornpe. 

But, if, having made an error in a calculation, this mistake were dis- 
covered, and the person who made it should exclaim, with a feeling of 
surprise or wonder : 

This is the first time I ever made a mistake, 

the subjunctive would express that state of his mind, and he would 
6ay : 

C'est la premiere fois que je me sois trornpe". 






VERB* 373 

It is the last time I made the mistake, C'est la derniere fois que je me suis 

trompe, 

with the indicative, signifies that the mistake was only made the last 
time; but, 

C'est la derniere fois que je me sois trompe, 

with the subjunctive, signifies, that, after having made previously 
several mistakes, the person who speaks never made any after that 
which he has just mentioned, and glories in the fact of having always 
acted right since. 

OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER A NOUN PRECEDED EITHER BY THE 
ARTICLE LE OR THE ADJECTIVE UN, AND FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE PRO- 
NOUN. 

771. Donnez-moi la bouteille qui contienne le plus de vin, 

with the subjunctive, expresses a desire for getting, among a lot of 
empty bottles, that which can hold more wine than the others, 

Donnez-moi la bouteille qui contient le plus de vin, 

with the indicative, expresses a desire for getting, among a lot of 
bottles already full, that which contains more wine than the others. 

In the first instance, there is a strong desire to obtain the largest 
bottle ; there is a doubt about getting a bottle able to contain more 
wine than the others, for they, by chance, may be all small, or of the 
same size, &c. 

In the second case, on the contrary, the bottles are all full ; the 
only thing is, to take among them that which is larger than the 
others; there is no doubt, no anxiety in the mind; it corresponds- to 
the following idea: 

Among these bottles there is one which holds more wine than the others ; give 
it to me. 

Donnez-moi une bouteille qui contienne une pinte de vin 

expresses a desire to have a bottle able to contain a pint of wine, 
without knowing, however, whether such a bottle can be found ; this 
doubt requires the subjunctive ; whilst 

Donnez-moi une bouteille qui contient une pinte de vin 
signifies: 

I have several bottles able to hold a pint of wine ; give me one of them. 

No doubt is expressed here; hence the indicative. 
32 



374 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Remark. Although, according to these rules, the - indicative and 
subjunctive can be properly used after a noun followed by a relative 
pronoun and preceded either by le or un, the indicative is generally 
used after the, le, on account of the definiteness of the noun thus 
accompanied ; whilst the subjunctive is more frequently used with un, 
the noun which un precedes having always a vagueness in its meaning 
which prompts the mind to use this mood. 



OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS QUI QUE, QUOI 
QUE, QUEL QUE, QUELQUE QUE, AND TOUT QUE. 

772. The indefinite pronouns qui que, whoever, quoi que, whatever, 
quel que and quelque, (adjective,) whatever, and quelque, (adverb,) 
however, the subjunctive mood is always used ; but tout que should be 
followed by the indicative when it signifies although very, and by the 
subjunctive when it means however ; as in, 

Man, whoever thou mayest be, respect Homme, qui que ta sois, respecte ce 
this modest monument erected by modeste monument eleve par la re- 
gratitude, connaissance. 

Whatever you may do, you will never Quoi que vous fassiez, vous ne reussi- 

s icceed in your own country. rez jamais dans votre pays. 

Whatever services you may reader Quelques services, or quels que soient les 

him, he will never be grateful for services, que vous lui rendiez, il n'en 

them. sera jamais reconnaissant. 

However pretty this woman may be, I Quelque jolie que soit cette dame, je ne 

shall never love her. l'aimerai jamais. 

However amusing these books may be, Tout amusants que soient ces livres, ils 

they are nevertheless very danger- n'en sont pas moins dangereux. 
ous. 

Although you are very wise, fear the Tout sage que vous etes, craignez le 

danger of temptation. danger de la tentation. 

In the first sentence, the uncertainty rests on the character of the 
man spoken of; in the second, on what you may do ; in the third, on 
the nature of the services which will be rendered ; in the fourth, on 
the more or less beauty the lady can possess ; in the fifth, on the 
degree of interest that the books can possess ; finally, the last is in 
the indicative mood because the meaning of the sentence is positive, 
and admits that the person spoken of is very wise. 

773. Remark. Although tout que may be properly used when sig- 
nifying however, it would be more in accordance with the genius of 
the language to use quelque in such cases, and to employ tout que 
only in the sense of although very, with the indicative. 






VERB. 375 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER QUE, USED TO AVOID THE REPETITION OF 
THE SAME CONJUNCTION. 

774. Whenever que is used to avoid the repetition of the same con- 
junction before the several verbs which that conjunction governs, it 
governs the same mood as the conjunction of which it takes the place. 
The only exception to this rule is where que is used instead of if, si; 
in which case, it governs the subjunctive, as we have already- 
explained, whilst si itself governs the indicative ; as in, 

I will not forgive you unless you apolo- Je ne vous pardonnerai pas d moins que 
gize to me and behave better. vous ne me. fassiez des excuses et 

que vous ne vous conduisiez mieux. 

If you go to France and stay there two Si vous allez en France et que vous y 
years, you will speak French per- restiez deux ans, vous parlerez Fran- 
fectly. cais parfaitement. 

As soon as I am in the country, and I Aiissitbt que je serai a la campagne, et 
have an opportunity, I will send you que 'faurai une occasion, je vous en- 
some fruit. verrai du fruit. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS WHICH S03IETIMES GOVERN THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND SOME- 
TIMES THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

775. There are six conjunctions which sometimes govern the indic- 
ative and sometimes the subjunctive mood, according to the sense of 
the sentence in which they are employed ; they are the following : 

Sinon que except. 

Ensorte que, (obsolete,) ^ 

De sorte que, >so that, so as. 

Demaniere que. j 

Tellement que, so that. 

Si ce n'est que, unless, except. 



He behaved so as to deserve the re- II s'est conduit de maniere qu'W a me- 

spect of honest people. rite le respect des honnetes gens. 

He answered nothing except that he II ne repondit rien sinon, or si ce n'est, 

would not do it. qu'W ne voulait pas le faire. 

You must behave so as to merit the Conduisez vous de maniere que vous 

respect of honest people. meritiez l'estime des honnetes gens. 

I only fear that you will not succeed as Je ne crains rien sinon, or si ce n'est que 

soon as you think. vous ne reussissiez pas aussitot que 

vous le croyez. 

The two first sentences express mere affirmations, while there is an 
idea of doubt implied in the meaning of the last two. 

OF THE SUEJUXCTIVE MOOD AFTER THE REFLECTIVE VERBS SE DOUTER AND 
&ATTEXDRE. 

776. The verbs douter and attendre, signifying to doubt and to wait, 
the first implying a feeling of doubt and the other one of expecta- 



376 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

tion, govern the subjunctive mood ; but these two verbs, when used 
reflectively, having no longer the same meaning, require the indicative 
mood to be used after them ; for se douter signifies to think, and 
s'attendre, to hope; as in, 

I doubt if he will come. Je doute qu'W vienne. 

I suspect, I think, he will come. Je me doute qv?\\ viendra. 

I wait for him to come. J'attends qu'd vienne. 

I hope, I expect, he will come. Je m'attends qu'il viendra 



means, 



signifies, 



Je me doute qu'il viendra, 

He will come; I am sure of it. 
Je m'attends qu'il viendra, 

He will come ; at least I hope so ; 



which, being mere affirmations, cannot be followed by the subjunctive. 
Remark. Used negatively, the verbs se douter and s'attendre govern 
either mood, according to the signification of the sentence. 

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

777. From what has already been said in reference to the subjunc- 
tive mood, we must arrive at this conclusion : that there are no precise 
rules to indicate exactly when it should be used ; the state of our 
mind or feelings should be our only guide. Does the idea which we 
wish to convey imply that of a doubt ? are we excited by any of the 
ordinary impulses of the human mind? or is there any uncertainty 
attached to the fact expressed by the verb we are going to use? 
These several circumstances should be conveyed by the assistance of 
the mood of doubt and emotions, — that is to say, by the subjunctive. 
Is, on the contrary, the fact represented as being positive, without any 
mixture of doubt or feeling ; is it, finally, a mere affirmation 1 Then, 
whatever may be the construction of the sentence, whether affirm- 
ative, negative, or interrogative, the verb expressing that fact should 
be employed in the mood of affirmation, that is to say, in the indica- 
tive mood. 

What has a foreigner to do, then, in order to use the subjunctive 
mood properly 1 Only to stop before he makes use of a verb preceded 
either by que or any of the relative pronouns, and see whether the 
sentence requires this mood to be employed or not. If, then, he has 
understood properly what we have attempted to illustrate in the pre- 



VERB. 377 

ceding chapters, he will never feel embarrassed, or reduced to guess, 
in reference to what he has to do in order to conform to the genius of 
our language ; but if he does not take time to reflect, until his mind 
is properly regulated, he will very likely obey the impulse of his 
English habits, and use in French the same mood as he would in his 
own language. 

"We shall say one word here in reference to a false notion which 
serves generally as a rule among foreigners who have been badly 
instructed in French, that is to say, that a verb should be used in the 
subjunctive mood because it is preceded by que; we have seen 
already that this supposition is erroneous, and will state here that que 
is the consequence of the subjunctive mood, but never the cause of it. 
Therefore, if a verb, used in the subjunctive, should be generally pre- 
ceded by the conjunction que, or one of the relative pronouns, it does 
not follow that a verb should be used in that mood because it follows 
that conjunction or any of these pronouns. We use the word gen- 
erally, because there are a few cases in which a sentence may begin 
by the verb in the subjunctive mood without que being expressed, as, 
for instance, in an exclamation when the nominative is elegantly 
placed after the verb ; as in, 

Let our colonies perish rather than a Perissent les colonies plutot qu'un prin- 
principle ! cipe ! 

But this is a mere privilege, which does not interfere with the rule ; 
this sentence being elliptical, and showing evidently the suppression 
of the words I wish that, at the beginning of it. 



OF THE CORRESPONDENCE EXISTING BETWEEN THE SEVERAL TENSES OP THE 
INDICATIVE MOOD WITH EACH OTHER, AND WITH THOSE OF THE CONDI- 
TIONAL. 

778. We gave, in the first edition of our grammar, an elaborate 
series of examples and rules, in order to show and illustrate all the 
possible combinations of the tenses in the indicative and conditional 
moods ; we thought then that these examples and illustrations were 
necessary, and even indispensable, for enabling foreigners to make a 
proper use of these tenses and moods according to the genius of the 
language ; but experience has proved to us that a general rule would 
be far preferable to all these details, which are neglected by the gen- 
erality of students, and which, after all, add nothing to what has 
already been explained at a great length, when speaking of each one 
32* 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

of the tenses and moods ; we will, then, only state here as a general 
rule : Whenever the verbs to be used in a sentence have been ascer- 
tained to belong either to the indicative or conditional moods, or to 
bot'h, — which can always be done without difficulty after having 
studied carefully what precedes — in order to use those verbs in 
the proper tenses, it is only necessary to examine the circumstances 
which accompany the fact or facts expressed by them ; they 
will always indicate clearly what tense should be used for each 
case. 

This rule is sufficient for a student who has fully understood our 
definitions and illustrations of the several tenses of the indicative and 
conditional moods ; and as to those who have no clear idea of the sig- 
nification of those tenses, no rule in reference to the relation which 
may exist between them can assist them in ascertaining which should 
be chosen among all those which can be coupled together in the 
construction of a sentence. An example will illustrate our meaning ; 
suppose we wish to translate into French the following sentence : 

It was reported yesterday that the president would come to Boston. 

The verb it was reported can be expressed either by the imperfect^ 
the preterite definite, or the preterite indefinite, of the verb to report. 
Should the fact that each of these tenses can be properly used with 
the conditional present enable the student to ascertain which of them 
he has to choose in this particular instance? Certainly not. What 
should guide him, then ? He should only reflect on what he is willing 
to say, and act accordingly. Does he wish to express that it was 
currently reported yesterday, during the whole day, that the president 
would come to Boston — the verb it was reported would then imply 
an idea of duration and repetition, which requires the use of the 
imperfect ; as in, 

On disait hier que le president viendrait a Boston. 

Does he wish to mention that yesterday, on a particular occasion, 
the fact of the president coming to Boston was reported 1 — the verb to 
report would then express a fact which took place in the past at a 
certain precise time, which is entirely over ; the unit of time, a day, 
being entirely elapsed, which circumstances are characteristic of the 
preterite definite, and he would say, 

On dit hier que le president viendrait a Boston. 



VERB. 379 

Finally, should this sentence be only intended to express that the 
fact of the president coming to Boston was reported sometime yes- 
terday, without any distinctness in reference to the very moment when 
this report was made ; — this vagueness about the time when the fact 
expressed by the verb took place being characteristic of the preterite 
indefinite, the sentence should then be, 

On a dit hier que le president viendrait a Boston. 

It is evident, therefore, that, in this particular case, — and the result 
should be the same in any other where the indicative and conditional 
mood are to be used, — the only useful knowledge is that which shows 
clearly to the student what tense he should use in order to be under- 
stood ; and if he applies properly the rules we have given on this 
subject, the tenses which he will be induced to employ cannot fail to 
come within the range of those which the genius of our language 
admits of being coupled together. 



OF THE CORRESPONDENCE WHICH SHOULD EXIST BETWEEN THE SEVERAL 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE AND CONDITIONAL MOODS, AND THOSE OF THE 
SUBJUNCTIVE, IN ORDER TO EXPRESS WITH THE LATTER MOOD EITHER A 
PAST, A PRESENT, A FUTURE, OR A CONDITIONAL. 

779. If the subjunctive should possess the ten tenses of the indica- 
tive and conditional moods, we would apply to that mood the remarks 
that we have just made in the preceding chapter, when speaking 
of the correspondence which exists between the several tenses 
of those two moods ; but the subjunctive has only four tenses, instead 
of ten ; it then becomes necessary to explain what conventional mean- 
ings have been attributed by usage to each of these four tenses, 
according to their being preceded by this or that tense of the indica- 
tive or conditional mood, in order to show that the fact represented by 
the verb in the subjunctive expresses either a present, a past, a future, 
or a conditional. 



OF THE PRESENT AND PRETERITE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. — WHAT TENSE 
OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE SHOULD BE USED WHEN THE VERB WHICH IS TO BE 
EMPLOYED IN THAT MOOD IS PRECEDED BY A PRESENT IN THE INDICA- 
TIVE. 

780. 1st. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the 
present of the indicative, that of the incidental proposition should gen- 
erally be placed in the present of the subjunctive, if intended to repre- 



380 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



sent a present or a future, and in the preterite of the same mood when 
intended to express a past ; as in, 
Present. 

I must go into the country immediately. II faut que 'faille immediatement a la 

campagne. 

Future. 

I must go into the country to-morrow. II faut que yaille demain a la cam- 
pagne. 

Past. 

You must have been very lazy to have U faut que vous ayez ete bien paresseux 
succeeded so little in your studies. pour avoir si mal reussi dans vos 

etudes. 

781. Remark. Although the preterite of the subjunctive expresses 
generally a past, when the first verb is in the present of the indicative, 
it may, however, sometimes be used to express a future anterior in 
sentences like the following : 

You must have done this work to-mor- II faut que vous ayez fini cet ouvrage 
row before twelve o'clock. demain avant midi. 



WHAT TENSE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE SHOULD BE USED WHEN THE VERB WHICH 
IS TO BE EMPLOYED IN THAT MOOD IS PRECEDED BY A FUTURE ABSOLUTE 
IN THE INDICATIVE. 

782. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the 
future absolute of the indicative mood, that of the incidental should 
be placed in the present of the subjunctive to express a future abso- 
lute, and in the preterite to express either a past or a future anterior ; 
as in, 



I must go into the country to-morrow. 

I shall never believe that you have done 
that in in so little time. 

You must have done this work to-mor- 
row. 



Il faudra que 'faille demain a la cam- 
pagne. 

Je ne croirai jamais que vous ayez fait 
cela en si peu de temps. 

II faudra que vous ayez fini cet ouvrage 
demain. 



The fact expressed by the verb aller, in the first sentence, does not 
imply any idea of anteriority, whilst the last sentence signifies that 
the work should be done before the day is over, and that of the second 
expresses simply a past, without any mixture of futurity ; the remark 
on the last example applies to the last sentence given in the preceding 
chapter. 



VERB. 381 



CANNOT THE PRESENT AND THE PRETERITE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE BE USED 
WHEN THE FIRST VERB IS IN THE PRETERITE INDEFINITE? 

783. The present of the subjunctive can be used after the preterite 
indefinite whenever the verb of the incidental proposition expresses a 
fact which is true at all times ; as in, 

God has covered the eye with thin and Dieu a entoure l'oeil de tuniques minces 
transparent coats, that we might see et transparentes, afin qu'on puisse 
through. voir a travers. 

The fact that we see through these thin coats is true at all times. 

784. The second verb is also used in the present after a preterite 
indefinite, when that verb expresses a fact which is present at the 
time spoken of, or future in reference to the time expressed by the 
first verb ; as in, 

Your father had too bad a night for him Votre pere a trop mat passe la nuit pour 

to be better this morning. qu'il puisse etre mieux ce matin. 

I have got your trunks ready, so that J'ai prepare vos malles, afin que vous 

yon might start to-morrow early in puissez partir demain matin de bonne 

the morning. heure. 

In the first of these two sentences, the second verb expresses a fact 
which is present at the time when the person speaks ; whilst in the 
latter, the fact expressed by the same verb expresses a future in refer- 
ence to the time when the trunks were prepared. 

785. The second verb is used in the preterite of the subjunctive 
after a preterite indefinite, whenever, expressing a fact which is 
always true, it shows that the particular instance of such a fact has 
taken place in the past ; as in, 

He must have solicited his judges. Il a fallu quHl ait sollicite ses juges. 

It is a fact always true, at least in France, that a client who wishes 
to gain his case should see and intreat the magistrates who have to 
decide upon it ; but this sentence only expresses an instance of the 
kind, and represents it as having taken place in the past ; hence the 
preterite of the subjunctive. 

OF THE IMPERFECT AND PLUPERFECT OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. — WHAT TENSE 
OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE SHOULD BE USED, WHEN THE VERB WHICH SHOULD BE 
EMPLOYED IN THAT MOOD IS PRECEDED EITHER BY ANY OF THE PAST 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE OR BY ONE OF THE CONDITIONALS. 

786. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in any of 
the past tenses of the indicative, or in one of the conditionals, that of 
the incidental is used in the imperfect of the subjunctive to express a 



382 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



present or a future in relation to the time when the fact expressed by 
the first verb took place, and in the pluperfect to express a past in 
reference to the same time ; as in, 
Present. 



I wished sincerely that new successes 

might silence envy. 
Caligula wanted the Romans to render 

him divine honors. 
God suffered the Roman empire to be 

overthrown by the invasion of the 

barbarians. 
I had ordered all the documents to be 

communicated to you. 



Je desirais sincerement que de nouveaux 

sacces fissent taire l'envie. 
Caligula voulut que les Romains lui 

rendissent des honneurs divins. 
Dieu a permis que l'invasion des bar* 

bares renversdt l'empire Remain. 

J'avais ordonne que tous les documents 
vous fussent communiques. 



Future. 



I had done ploughing my field before 
you came. 

I should like to see men forming but 
a large republic, whose supreme 
chief should be God. 

Would you have wished me to sacrifice 
my own happiness for the satisfac- 
tion of a mere revenge 1 



J'ews labour e mon champ avant que vous 

n'arrivassiez. 
Je voudrais que les hommes ne formas- 

sent qu'une grande republique, dont 

Dieu serait le chef supreme. 
Auriez-vous voulu que pour me venger 

je sacrifiasse mon bonheur personnel 1 



Past. 



I did not know you had made so thor- 
ough a study of modern languages. 

You never would believe that wicked- 
ness and hatred would have produced 
such deplorable results. 

You had not thought that a snare had 
been laid for your simplicity. 

We have never been aware that the 
king had granted you this favor. 

You would not be pleased if we had 
disobeyed your orders. 

You would not have been pleased if we 
had not obeyed your orders. 

I had done ploughing my field before 
you arrived. 



Je ne savais pas que vous eussiez fait 

une etude si approfondie des langues 

modernes. 
Vous ne voulutes jamais croire que la 

mechancete et la haine eussent pu 

produire de si tristes resultats. 
Vous n'aviez pas era qu'on exit tendu un 

piege a votre innocence. 
Nous avons toujours ignore que le roi 

vous eut accorde cette faveur. 
Vous trouveriez mauvais que nous eus- 

sions contrevenu a vos ordres. 
Vous auriez trouve mauvais que nous 

n'eussions pas execute vos ordres. 
J'eus labour e mon champ avant que vous 

nefussiez arrive. 



WHAT TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD SHOULD BE USED WHEN, THE FIRST 
VERB BEING IN THE PRESENT, THE SECOND EXPRESSES EITHER A CONDITIONAL 
PRESENT, AN IMPERFECT, OR A CONDITIONAL PAST. 

787. Whenever a verb in the present tense of the indicative mood 
is followed by another verb which, if the subjunctive should not be 
required by the first, would be expressed either by the imperfect or 



VERB. 3S3 

the conditional present, that second verb should be used in the 
imperfect of the subjunctive ; as in, 

Do you think she would sing if I asked Croyez-vous gw'elle chantdt si je l'en 

her for it 1 No, I do not think she priais 1 Non, je ne crois pas f/w'elle 

would in presence of so many people. le voulut en presence de tant de per- 

sonnes. 

Gayety is seldom found where there is On trouve rarement la gaiete ou n'est 

no health ; Scarron was funny, but pas la sante ; Scarron etait plaisant, 

I hardly believe he was gay. mais je doute qu'ilfut gai. 

In the first of these two sentences, the imperfects of the subjunctive, 
chantdt and voulut, are used instead of the conditionals chanterait and 
voudrait, which cannot be employed in this case, on account of the 
doubt implied in the meaning- of the sentence. 

In the second sentence, the imperfect of the subjunctive, fut, is 
used instead of the imperfect of the indicative, etait, which, if the 
indicative mood could be used, should be employed to show the habit- 
ual disposition of the mind of the person spoken of. 

But, if the condition expressed or implied in the meaning of the 
sentence, instead of referring to the present or to the future, should 
allude to the past, the second verb, expressing then a conditional past, 
should be rendered by the pluperfect of the subjunctive ; as in, 

Do you think she would have sung if Croyez-vous <?w'elle eut chante si je l'en 

I had asked her for it 1 No, I do avais priee 1 Non, je ne crois pas 

not Uiink she would have done it in gw'elle Yeiit voulu en votre presence, 
your presence. 

In this sentence, the two pluperfects, qu'elle eut chante and qu'elle 
Veut voulu, are used instead of the conditionals, qu'elle aurait chante 
and qu'elle V aurait voulu, on account of the idea of doubt implied in 
the meaninp- of the sentence. 



WHAT TENSE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD SHOULD BE USED WITH ANY OF THE 
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE OR CONDITIONAL MOOD, WHEN THAT VERB 
EXPRESSES A FACT WHICH IS ALWAYS TRUE. 

788. Whatever may be the tense in which the verb of the principal 
proposition is used, that of the incidental should always be placed in 
the present of the subjunctive, if it expresses a fact which is true at 
all times ; as in, 

They were authorized to consider diese On etait fonde a regarder ces deux ani- 

two animals as being different from maux comme differents, ^uoz^we leurs 

each other, although their figures are formes soient assez semblables. 
somewhat similar. 



384 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

However, the Cretans, having no longer Cependant, les Cretois, n'ayant plus de 

a king to govern them, have resolved rois pour les gouverner, ont resolu 

to choose one who will preserve the d'en choisir un qui conserve dans 

established laws in all their purity. toute leur purete les lois etablies. 

In the former sentence, the verb soient expresses a fact which is 
always true, for God never changes the form of animals ; in the latter, 
the verb conserve signifies that the king to be chosen by the Cretans 
will be one of those who, through their good sense and respect for 
the will of the people, would never attempt to alter the laws of the 
country over which they rule. 



QUESTIONS 



743. For what purpose is the indicative mood used 1 

744. In what case is the conditional mood used 1 

745. What is the meaning of the imperative mood 1 

746. What state of our mind or feelings is the subjunctive mood intended to 
represent 1 

746. Can a verb be used in the subjunctive mood without being preceded by 
another verb, either expressed or understood 1 

746. By what kind of word should two verbs be separated when, the first 
being in the indicative, the second should be used in the subjunctive mood 1 

747. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition expresses either an 
emotion of the soul or a doubt, in what mood should the second verb be used % 

748. Does the verb esperer, to hope, govern the subjunctive 1 Why not 1 

749. When the verb of the principal proposition is used with a negative, 
how shall the pupil ascertain whether the second verb should be used either in 
the subjunctive or the indicative mood 1 

750. The principal proposition being negative, in what mood is the verb of 
the incidental generally used 1 Why in the subjunctive 1 

751. In what mood should the verb of an incidental proposition be used 
when, the sentence being interrogative, the question is only asked in order to 
ascertain the existence of a fact which, in our own mind, presents not the least 
idea of a doubt or feeling 1 

752. When a question is asked with the verb savoir, to know, respecting a 
fact we are ignorant of, is the subjunctive mood used with que, or the indicative 
with si, if? 

753. What mood do impersonal verbs govern when they do not imply an idea 
of positiveness 1 

753. What mood do all impersonal verbs govern when they are used nega- 
tively 1 

753. Why do impersonal verbs govern the subjunctive mood 1 

753. Why do the impersonal verbs, il est sur, certain, evident, clair , positif, 
&c, govern the subjunctive mood when used negatively 1 

754. What mood does the impersonal verb il est probable, it is likely, govern 
when used affirmatively 1 If it governs the indicative, why is it so 1 How is it 
when used negatively 1 

755. In what case does the impersonal verb it seems, il semble, govern either 
the indicative or the subjunctive mood 1 

755. What mood does it always govern when used negatively 1 



VERB. 385 

756. When the verb it seems, il semble, is preceded by an objective personal 
pronoun, does it follow the preceding rule 1 

756. However, by what mood is that verb generally followed when, being 
preceded by an objective pronoun, it is used in the affirmative form 1 How is it 
when used negatively 1 

757. What mood does the impersonal verb il parait, it appears, govern when 
used affirmatively 1 How is it when used in the negative form 1 

75S. In what case do the expressions, on croirait, one would believe, on dirait, 
one would say, &c, govern either die indicative or subjunctive mood 1 
75S. When used negatively, do these expressions follow the same rule 1 

759. In what signification do the verbs, entendre, dire,pretendre, &c, govern 
either the indicative or the subjunctive mood 1 

760. In what case do the verbs, ordonner, commander, eociger, &c, govern 
either the subjunctive or the conditional mood 1 

761. 762. Does the conjunction si govern the next verb in the subjunctive 
mood 1 Why not 1 

761. 762. Is the verb of the incidental proposition always used in the sub- 
junctive mood when the principal is preceded by si ? What should be the 
meaning of that verb for it to be used in the indicative 1 

762. Whenever que is used instead of si, in order to avoid the repetition of 
this conjunction, does it govern the indicative or the subjunctive moodl Why 
does it govern the subjunctive mood 1 

763. In any other case, does not que always govern the same mood as the 
conjunction of which it takes the place 1 

764. Has si, when an adverb, the same influence over the verb as it pos- 
sesses when a conjunction 1 

765. Are there not a certain number of conjunctions which, ending with que, 
govern the next verb in the subjunctive mood 1 Which are they, and why do 
they govern that mood 1 is it merely as words, or on account of the meaning of 
the sentence in which they are used 1 (The teacher should make his pupils learn 
these conjunctions by heart, and explain, for each of them, why they do govern 
the subjunctive.) 

766. Is not the subjunctive mood sometimes used at the beginning of a sen- 
tence, and without even being preceded by que? How can this be 1 

767. Is not the verb saix>ir sometimes used in the subjunctive mood in a 
peculiar manner 1 How is it *? 

768. When a verb is preceded by a superlative relative which is itself fol- 
lowed by a relative pronoun, what should be the meaning of the sentence for 
that verb to be used in the subjunctive mood 1 

769. Although either mood can be used after a superlative, according to the 
meaning of the sentence, which is the most generally used 1 Why is it the 
subjunctive 7 . 

770. In what case is the subjunctive used when the verb of the incidental 
proposition is preceded by any of the expressions, le seul, V unique, le premier, and 
le dernier? (The teacher should make his pupils analyze the sentences given in 
the grammar, for this case as well as those which precede and follow it, in order 
to ascertain whedier they fully understand the explanations which it contains.) 

771. What should be the meaning of a sentence for the subjunctive to be 
used after a relative pronoun having for its antecedent a noun preceded either 
by the adjective a, un, or the article the? 

771. Which is the mood which is the most generally used in such cases 1 

772. What mood should invariably be used after any of the indefinite pro- 
noun=, qui que, quoi que, quel que, and quelque? Why is it the subjunctive 1 

773. After tout que, which mood should be preferred 1 

774. Whenever que is used in order to avoid the repetition of a conjunction, 
what mood does it govern 1 

775. Are there not some conjunctions which sometimes govern the indicative 
and sometimes the subjunctive mood 1 Which are they 1 and why this difference 1 

33 



3S6 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

776. What mood do the reflected verbs se douter and s'attendre govern after 
them 1 Why do they not govern the subjunctive 1 

776. When used negatively, do they govern either mood 1 

777. Since it appears, from what precedes, that there can be no positive rules 
in reference to the use of the subjunctive mood, how should a foreigner reason in 
order to ascertain whether this mood is to be used or not 1 What should he do 
before using, in French, a verb which is preceded either by que or any of the 
relative pronouns 1 

777. Is the subjunctive mood the absolute consequence of a verb being 
preceded by que, or a relative pronoun, or is it not the meaning of a sentence 
which requires that que or the relative pronoun should be followed by that mood 1 
(The teacher should insist on these remarks being well understood, because they 
show plainly what the difficulty is, and how it should be overcome.) 

778. Are any particular rules necessary in order to show how the several 
tenses of the indicative and conditional moods should be used together 1 

778. What guide should foreigners have in order to use the tenses of these 
two moods properly 1 

779, 780. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the present 
tense of the indicative mood, what tenses of the subjunctive mood should be used 
in order to represent a fact as being either present, future, or past 1 

781. Cannot the preterite of the subjunctive be used with a verb in the 
present of the indicative, in order to express a future anterior 1 (Give an 
example.) 

782. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the future abso- 
lute, what tenses of the subjunctive mood should be used to express either a 
future absolute, a past, or a future anterior 1 (Give an example for each case.) 

783. When, the first verb being in the preterite indefinite, the second ex- 
presses a fact which is true at all times, what tense of the subjunctive should be 
used in order to express that fact % 

784. When, the first verb being in the preterite indefinite, the second expresses 
a fact as being present at the time spoken of, or future in reference to the time 
when the fact expressed by the first verb took place, in what tense of the subjunc- 
tive mood should the second verb be used 1 

785. When, the first verb being in the preterite indefinite, the second verb, 
expressing a fact which is always true, shows that the particular instance spoken 
of took place in the past, what tense of the subjunctive mood should be used to 
express that fact 1 

786. Whenever the first verb is in one of the past tenses of the indicative 
mood, or in one of the conditionals, what tenses of the subjunctive mood should 
be used to express either a present, a future, or a past 1 

787. Whenever, the first verb being in the present of the indicative, the 
second expresses a fact the existence of which is submitted to a condition, what 
tense of the subjunctive mood should be used, whether this condition is to be 
accomplished either now, in the future, or should have been accomplished in 
the past *? 

788. What tense of the subjunctive should be used to express a fact which is 
always true, whatever may be the tense or mood in which the first verb may be 
employed 1 



OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 



789. A verb in the infinitive mood is either the nominative or the 
object of another verb. 

When used as a nominative, it governs the third person and the 
singular number. 



VERB. 387 

"When used as the object of a verb, the infinitive mood is subject 
to some particular rules, which require to be attended to with care. 

We have already examined the several cases in which, two verbs 
following one another, the second may be used either in the indica- 
tive or subjunctive mood ; it remains now for us to examine when that 
second verb can also be used in the infinitive. 



CAN A VERB BE GOVERNED BY ANOTHER IN THE INFINITIVE MOOD WHEN 
THIS VERB DOES NOT RELATE EITHER TO A NOUN OR PRONOUN ALREADY 
EXPRESSED IN THE SENTENCE? 

790. A verb, to be used in the infinitive mood, should always 
show clearly what is the noun, pronoun, or idea, to which it relates ; 
therefore, when a sentence is so constructed as to require that two 
verbs should follow one another, the second verb having no antece- 
dent already expressed in that sentence, the infinitive cannot be used 
unless the mind might at once detect what that infinitive refers to. 
[n the following sentence, for instance : 

It is better for a man to be unfortunate II vaut mieux etre malheureux que cou- 
tban guilty, pable, 

the second verb, etre, is very properly used in the infinitive mood, 
although it has no antecedent already expressed, because the mind 
supplies it without difficulty ; it is evident that etre refers to man in 
general. 

But, if a man, wishing to inquire whether he should go to New 
York on some particular occasion, should say : 

Faut-\\ alter a New York 1 



Must I go to New York 1 

the sentence would be incorrect, because the verb alter might refer to 
anybody as well as to himself; the subjunctive mood should be 
employed in such cases, and the above sentence be expressed by 

Faut-il que 'faille a New York 1 



CAN A VERB ALWAYS BE GOVERNED BY ANOTHER, IN THE INFrNITIVE MOOD, 
WHEN THAT VERB HAS AN ANTECEDENT ALREADY EXPRESSED IN THE 

SENTENCE? 

791. Whenever, two verbs following one another, the second has 
an antecedent already expressed in the sentence, this verb cannot be 



388 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

used in the infinitive mood unless that antecedent be either the nom- 
inative or the object of the first verb ; as in, 

Man does not live long enough to L'homme ne vit pas assez longtems 
accomplish all his projects. pour accomplir tons ses projets. 

I command you, on the part of the Je vous ordonne, de la part du roi, de 
king, to get ready to begin the cam- vous tenir pret a commencer la cam- 
paign with him to-morrow at sunrise. pagne avec lui demain au lever du 

soleil. 

These two sentences are perfectly clear ; it is evident, that, in the 
former, the infinitive accomplir relates to man, and, in the latter, tenir 
refers to vous ; there can be no hesitation in detecting the connection 
between these two infinitives and their antecedents. 

But we could not say : 

The life of man is not long enough for La vie de Vhomme n'est pas assez 
him to accomplish all his projects, longue pour accomplir tous ses projets, 

because the infinitive mood, instead of having for its antecedent the 
nominative of the first verb, la vie, relates to the object of that nom- 
inative, Vhomme; this circumstance makes the sense ambiguous; one 
does not see at once whether it should be life or man that is to per- 
form the act expressed by the second verb, accomplir. This sentence 
should, then, be rendered by, 

La vie de Vhomme n'est pas assez longue pour qu'il accomplisse tous ses projets, 

the subjunctive mood, qiVil accomplisse, showing clearly, through its 
masculine nominative, il, that the verb refers to man, and not to life, 
which is feminine. 

We could not say, either : 

What have I done that you should in- Qu'ai-je fait pour venir m'insulter "? 
suit me ! 

because venir has no antecedent ; one does not see who is to come and 
insult ; it ought to be : 

Qu'ai-je fait pour que vous veniez m'insulter 1 

But, if the first verb had an object, as in : 

What have I done to you that you Que vous ai-je fait pour venir m'insulter 1 ? 
should insult me 1 

the sentence would be correct, because one would see clearly that it 
is you who is to come and insult. 



VERB. 389 

792. Remark. It should be remarked, however, that, although the 
second verb should relate to the object of the first, the infinitive can 
only be used when this connection is clearly established by the mean- 
ing of the sentence itself; therefore, the following sentence would be 
incorrect : 

What have I done to your father for Qu'ai-je fait a votre pere pour venir 
him to come and insult me 1 m'insulter 1 

because it does not appear clearly whether it is the father or the person 
spoken to who is to come and insult. The subjunctive should be used 
here, in order to show, through its nominative, what is the antecedent 
of the verb venir; as in, 

Qu'ai-je fait a votre pere pour qu'il vienne m'insulter 1 



REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

793. Whenever two verbs follow one another, the second should 
be put in the infinitive mood preferably to the indicative or the sub- 
junctive mood, provided no ambiguity would arise from the fact of 
using that mood. 

There is generally no ambiguity in a sentence constructed with the 
infinitive mood, when the verb used in this mood has for its antece- 
dent either the nominative or the object of the first verb ; but, should 
the sentence not be perfectly clear, even in this case, the indicative or 
subjunctive should be used instead of the infinitive. 

From what precedes it results, that the English expressions so often 
used, I wish I could, I wish I was, &c, cannot be rendered in French 
literally ; the second verb, having the same nominative as the first, 
should be expressed by the infinitive mood ; as in, 

I wish I was rich, that I might go to Je voudrais etre riche, pour pouvoir aller 

Europe. en Europe. 

I wish I could speak French as well as Je voudrais pouvoir parler Francais 

you. aussi bien que vous. 

794. The French language admits of two infinitives being used one 
after the other, the second being then the object of the first ; as in, 

I will let him know it. Je veux le hi f aire savoir. 

I dare not permit them to write. Je n'ose leur permettre d'ecrire. 

But three or more infinitives used in this way would make the 
33* 



390 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



style confused, heavy, and disagreeable to the ear. Good writers pro- 
scribe such a practice ; therefore, we should not say : 

I think I shall be able to go and see Je crois pouvoir aller voir vos parents. 

your parents. 

Do not think that you can exercise all N'allez pas croire pouvoir faire jouer tenia 

the powers of eloquence. les ressorts de 1'eloquence. 

Such sentences should be constructed either with the indicative or 
the subjunctive mood, as follows : 

Je crois que je pourrai aller voir vos parents. 

N'allez pas croire que vous sachiez faire jouer tous les ressorts de 1'eloquence. 



OF CASES IN WHICH EUPHONY REQJJIRES THAT THE INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNC- 
TIVE MOOD SHOULD BE PREFERRED TO THE INFINITIVE. 

795. The indicative and the subjunctive mood should be preferred 
to the infinitive whenever several verbs, following each other in this 
latter mood, would require to be preceded by the same preposition, — 
either to avoid the repetition of that preposition, or because, not being 
used to establish the same relation between those several verbs, the 
repetition of that preposition would make the sentence obscure. 

Aristippus ordered his companions to Aristippe chargea ses compagnons de 

tell his fellow-citizens, on his part, dire, de sa part, a ses concitoyens, de 

to think, in time, to get<ready for the songer, de bonne heure, a se preparer 

coming struggle. a la lutte. 

This sentence, thus constructed, is intolerable to the ear ; it should 
be expressed as follows : 

Aristippe chargea ses compagnons de dire, de sa part, a ses concitoyens, gu'ils 
songeassent, de bonne heure, a se preparer a la lutte. 

We should also use the indicative mood instead of the infinitive, 
merely for the sake of euphony, in the following sentence ! 

I am sure, with time and firmness, I Je suis sur, avec de la patience et de la 
shall succeed in curing him ; fermete, quejeparviendrai a le guerir ; 

que je parviendrai being used, instead of de parvenir, in order to avoid 
the further repetition of the preposition de. 



VERB. 



OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



391 



796. The present participle is always terminated in ant; as, itant, 
being ; aimant, loving ; parlant, speaking. 

This word, which applies equally to the three persons, is invaria- 
ble ; that is to say, takes neither number nor gender, whatever may be 
the noun to which it relates ; thus, we write, 

A man reading. Un homme lisant. 

Men reading. Des hommes lisant. 

A woman reading. Une feinme lisant. 

Women reading. Des femmes lisant. 



OF THE DIFFERENCE EXISTING BETWEEN A PRESENT PARTICIPLE AND THE 
SAME WORD USED AS AN ADJECTIVE. 

797. The present participle ought not to be mistaken for the adjec- 
tive, which differs from it only by its signification, — the two words 
being alike in their construction. 

The present participle expresses an action , or a temporary situation ; 
it has generally an object, direct or indirect, expressed or understood. 
When the object is not expressed, in order to ascertain whether the 
word is a participle, we must put an object after it, and see if the sen- 
tence will be correct with it ; — if so, it is a participle ; if not, it is an 
adjective. There is another way of ascertaining the nature of the 
present participle : if a doubt arise about the nature of the word, 
we must try to translate it by qui, with another tense of the verb, or 
place before this last tense one of the conjunctions lorsque, quand, 
when, parceque, because, puisque, since, &c, and if the transforma- 
tion produces a sentence which agrees with the mind and the genius 
of the language, then the doubtful w T ord is a present participle ; if not, 
it is an adjective. Thus, in the following phrase : 

He is a man of good nature, obliging C'est un homme d'un bon caract&re, 
his friends when he can do it. obligeant ses amis quand il le peut. 

Obligeant here is evidently a present participle, because it expresses 
a temporary action, has a direct object, his friends, and could ba 
replaced by qui oblige ses amis, &c. , who obliges his friends, &c. 

These men, foreseeing danger, put Ces hommes, prevoyant le danger, 6e 
themselves on their guard. mirent sur leurs gardes. 

Prevoyant is a present participle, for the reasons above stated. 

Those persons loving everybody, gen- Les personnes aimant tout le monde, 
erally love nobody. n'aiment generalement personne. 



392 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The above remark applies to aimant. 

798. The adjective, derived from the present participle, called by 
the grammarians verbal adjective, expresses the situation, the perma- 
nent state, of the noun to which it relates ; it may be constructed with 
any tense of the verb to be, but cannot be used with qui and the verb 
from which it is derived ; it has no object, direct or indirect, as in the 
following phrases : 

They are obliging persons. Ce sont des personnes obligeantes. 

Obligeantes does not express an action, but a natural and permanent 
disposition of the heart, which disposes those persons to oblige others 
at all times. We could not say here, qui obligent, because there is 
no regimen to be found ; but we could say, qui sont obligeantes, so as 
to designate a quality, and not an action ; therefore, this word is an 
adjective, and must agree in number and gender with the noun which 
it qualifies. 

Persons who are inclined to love have Les personnes aimantes ont plus de jou- 

much more satisfaction than others. issances que les autres. 

These provident persons have perceived Ces personnes prevoyantes ont apercu 

the danger. le danger. 

Aimantes and prevoyantes are adjectives for the same reason as 
obligeantes, in the first example. 

Although the above remarks ought to be sufficient to enable a 
native to ascertain, in all cases, when a word is a participle or a 
verbal adjective, we will now, for the sake of foreigners, add some 
few illustrations, so as to banish all possible doubt on the subject. 



Observations. 

799. The present participle ought to express an action or a tempo- 
rary situation reacting on somebody or something ; thus, in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

Carthage, resisting the whole forces of Carthage, resistant a toutes les forces 

the Romans, was taken by surprise des Romains, fut surprise plutut que 

rather than defeated. vaincue. 

Here are some unfortunate people still Voici des infortunes, palpitant encore 

living under the ruins. sous les ruines. 

Their ambition increasing with their Leur ambition croissant avec leurs rich- 
riches, from merchants they became esses, de marchands ils devinrent 
conquerors. conquerants. 

These ideas, running incessantly in this Ces idees roulant a tout moment dans 

wild soul, inspired it with a secret cette ame farouche, lui inspiraient 

and silent rage. une rage muette et cachee. 



VERB. 393 

Resistant is put for when it resisted; palpitant, for qui palpitent ; 
croissant, for as it increased; roulant, for by running; and, conse- 
quently, each one of these words is a present participle, which mast 
remain invariable ; there is no possible doubt about it. 

800. But in the following : 

The streets are filled with these inter- Les rues sont remplies de ces enfants 
esting children, shivering with cold, interessants, tremblants de froid,mo«- 
dying with hunger, and always cry- rants de faim,et sans cesse pleurants. 

The streets were filled with children, Les rues etaient remplies d'enfants, 

interesting everybody in their favor, interessant tout le monde en leur 

trembling with fear at the sight of faveur, tremblant de peur a la vue 

their cruel masters, and crying bit- de leurs maitres cruels, et pleurant 

terly for the loss of their liberty. amerement la perte de leur liberte. 

The mind might hesitate at the proper qualification of the words 
interessant, tremblant, and pleurant, which are adjectives in the first 
sentence, and participles in the second ; but, if we apply the rule 
already laid down, we find no difficulty in accounting for the differ- 
ence. The words interessants, tremblants, mourants, and pleurants, 
do not express a temporary action, but the state, the manner of being, 
of the children, and could be changed into adjectives which present 
no doubt about their real character ; as, tremblants defroid, into tran- 
sis, frozen ; mourants de faim, into affames, starving ; pleurants, into 
eplores, in despair. Whereas, in the second sentence, interessant is 
followed by a direct object, tout le monde, and could be translated by 
qui interessaient ; tremblant de peur has an indirect object, and is a 
temporary feeling caused by the sight of the cruel masters, wmich 
might vanish with the cause which produces it ; pleurant has a direct 
object, and could be expressed by qui pleuraient. These words, then, 
have all the properties of the present participle, and ought to be writ- 
ten accordingly. 

In the following sentences, we shall make use of 

The Present Participle. The Verbal Adjective. 

These men, whom you suppose to be These small insects, which are imper- 
so wild, live as we do. ceptible to the sight, are beingg 

having life as we have. 

Ces hommes, que vous croyez si sau- Ces petits insects, imperceptibles a la 
vages, sont des hommes vivant comme vue, sont des £tres vivants comme 
nous (qui vivent comme nous.) nous (enjoying existence, life.) 

This property, belonging to the heri- They have sold all the property belong- 

tage, has to be sold. ing to the inheritance. 

Ces biens, dependant de la succession, On a vendu tous les biens dependants 

doivent etre vendus (that is to say, de la succession (which were belong- 

because they belong.) ing.) 



394 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



According to the rule already established, if the word terminating 
in ant may admit of the verb to be being placed before it, it is then an 
adjective, and if not, a participle. 

OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES WHICH ARE NEVER USED AS ADJECTIVES. 

801. There are some of the present participles which are never 
used as adjectives ; as in, 



Ayant, 


having. 


Gainbadant, 


gamboling. 


Babillant, 


tattling. 


Gesticulant, 


gesticulating 


Badinant, 


trifling. 


Sanglotant, 


sobbing. 


Etant, 


being. 


Soupirant, 


sighing, &c. 


Folatrant, 


dallying. 







OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES WHOSE CORRRSPONDING ADJECTIVES, ALTHOUGH 
HAVING THE SAME PRONUNCIATION, HAVE A DIFFERENT ORTHOGRAPHY. 

802. Others have for corresponding adjectives words sounding 
alike, but whose orthography is different ; as in, 



Participles. 



Adjectives. 



Extravagating, 


extravaguant. 


Extravagant, 


extravagant 


Intriguing, 


intriguant. 


Intriguer, 


intrigant. 


Fabricating, 


fabriquant. 


Manufacturer, 


fabricant. 


Being vacant, 


vaquant. 


Vacant, 


vacant. 


Adhering, 


adherant. 


Adherent, 


adherent. 


Abounding, 


affluant. 


Running into, 


affluent. 


Coinciding, 


coincidant. 


Coincident, 


coincident. 


Differing, 


differant. 


Different, 


different. 


Compensating, 


equivalant. 


Equivalent, 


equivalent. 


Excelling, 


excellant. 


Excellent, 


excellent. 


Neglecting, 


negligeant. 


Neglectful, 


negligent. 


Preceding, 


precedant. 


Precedent, 


precedent. 


Presiding, 


presidant. 


President, 


president. 


Residing, 


residant. 


Residing, 


resident. 



GENERAL INDICATIONS, SERVING AS A GUIDE IN ORDER TO ASCERTAIN 
WHETHER A WORD ENDING IN ANT IS A PRESENT PARTICIPLE OR NOT. 

803. 1st. The word ending in ant is always a participle when it 
has a direct object, or when it is preceded by the negation ne; as in, 



A daughter caressing her mother. 
Children tormenting themselves. 
As you do not work, you ought to be 
poor. 



Une fille caressant sa mere. 
Des enfants se tourmentant. 
Ne travaillant pas, vous devez 
pauvre. 



etre 



804. 2d. It is still a participle when, expressing an idea of cause, 
or motive, it may receive another form, and be preceded by one of the 
conjunctions because, as, since; as in, 



As her hair was floating on her shoul- 
ders, it attracted the notice of all. 



Ses cheveux flottant sur ses epaules, 
attiraient tous les regards. 



VERB. 395 

It attracted notice because it was floating ; the action of the hair 
was the cause of the attraction. 

Whereas we should say with the adjective : 

These children had magnificent hair Ces enfants avaient de magnifiques 
floating upon their shoulders. cheveux flottants sur leurs epaules. 

Here the hair is naturally floating and hanging on their shoulders ; 
there is no action expressed, but a state or a condition, and no effect 
produced by it. 

805. 3d. When we wish to express an action with an idea of 
special time, or sameness of time : 

See these children anxious to obey, Voyez ces enfants obeissant a 1'envi, 
flying to gratify the wishes of their courant au devant des desirs de leui 
mother. mere. 

I saw them running before us. Je les voyais courant devant nous (when 

they were running.) 

806. 4th. When the word ending in ant admits of the preposition 
in, en, being placed before it, it can be but a present participle ; as in, 

They have hurt themselves in playing. lis se sont blesses en jouant. 
Slander increases by the silence of the La calomnie va toujours croissant par le 
slandered. silence du calomnie. 

In the last sentence, en, in, could be prefixed to the word croissant; 
thus it is a participle. 



OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 

807 Past participles may be used in five different ways : 

1st. Without any auxiliary. 

2d. With the auxiliary verb to be in passive or neuter verbs. 

3d. With the auxiliary verb to have in active verbs. 

4th. With the auxiliary verb to have in neuter verbs. 

5th. With the auxiliary verb to be in reflected verbs. 

OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE USED WITHOUT ANY AUXILIARY. 

808. A past participle used without any auxiliary is considered as 
an adjective, and agrees in number and gender with its antecedent ; 
as in, 

Surrounded on all sides, they thought Entoure's de tous cotes, Us se crurent 
they were lost and bound to sur- perdus et forces de se rendre. 
render. 



396 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OP PAST PARTICIPLES USED WITH THE VERB TO BE, £TRE, EITHER IN 
PASSIVE OR NEUTER VERBS. 

809. A past participle of a passive verb, or of a neuter verb conju- 
gated with to be, expressing only the situation of the nominative, is 
still considered as an adjective, and agrees in number and gender with 
that nominative ; as in, 

The Greeks were persuaded that the Les Grecs etaient persuades que 1'ame 

soul is immortal. est immortelle. (Passive.) 

Your sister has gone out very early this Votre soeur est sortie de tres bonne heure 

morning. ce matin. (Neuter.) 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES USED WITH THE VERB TO HAVE, AVOIR, IN ACTIVE 

VERBS. 

810. In active verbs, which are all conjugated with avoir, the 
nominative has no influence over the past participle, but this parti- 
ciple agrees in number and gender with the direct object of the verb, 
provided that direct object is placed before it ; when placed after the 
verb, that object has no influence over the past participle ; as in, 

Here is the letter which I have re- Voici la lettreque j'ai recue. 

ceived. 
Here are the letters which I have Voici les lettres que j'ai recuea. 

received. 

In these two examples, the direct object of the verb J have received 
is the relative pronoun que, which, being of the same number and 
gender as its antecedent, is feminine singular in the first case and 
feminine plural in the other ; the past participle of the first sentence 
should, then, be used in the singular feminine, and that of the latter 
in the plural feminine. 

811. In order to explain this rule, it is necessary to analyze the 
sentence itself, and to examine the relation existing between the par- 
ticiple and the direct object of the verb. 

We have already seen, that, in passive verbs, the past participle, 
expressing only the situation of the nominative, should participate of 
its nature, and agree with it in number and gender. Let us examine 
now, in a sentence which is constructed with an active verb, what is 
the word the situation of which is expressed by the past participle. 
When I say : 

Here is the letter which I have received, 

does not the participle; received, express the situation of the direct 
object, letter? It does ; hence the agreement of the former with the 



VERB. 397 

latter. But then, why does not this agreement take place when the 
direct object is placed after the verb 1 

Here we must reason by analogy. It is a fact that words come in 
a sentence one after another for the sole purpose of obeying the 
impulse of our minds ; if a particular word is necessary to convey 
an idea or impart a feeling, that word presents itself naturally in the 
construction of the sentence. If, this word being a particular part 
of speech when used in its natural sense, the mind, in order to obey 
some particular impulse, should require its transformation into another, 
this transformation takes place immediately. It is thus that we use 
adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions, as nouns ; 
nouns as adjectives ; adjectives as adverbs. If a part of speech is 
declinable, as adjectives, pronouns, and past participles are, that is to 
say, if it is susceptible of modification in reference to the number and 
gender of the noun which it qualifies, or of which it takes the place, 
analogy requires, in our language, that this part of speech should 
receive such modifications in its termination as to show the relation 
existing between them. If these principles are correct, — and they 
are, — the rule we have just given for the agreement of past parti- 
ciples in active verbs may be very easily understood ; for, when the 
direct object the situation of which is expressed by the past participle 
precedes this participle, the mind, being already impressed with the 
idea of the number and gender which belong to that object, feels 
prompted to impart them to the participle which qualifies it. But this 
predisposition does not exist when the participle is used before its 
object has made its appearance in the sentence ; hence the agreement 
in the former case and none in the latter. This mode of reasoning 
is the same we have already employed when speaking of the partitive 
words some and any used before an adjective, in order to explain why 
the article the is not used when the adjective precedes the noun, 
whilst it is used when the noun precedes the adjective. 

The agreement of the past participle is represented as one of the 
greatest difficulties of the French language ; but this difficulty exists, 
in reality, only for those who do not understand the rule we have 
given, or, if they understand it, have not been properly instructed in 
the manner of applying it properly ; for, if it is always very easy to 
remember, as a fact, that a past participle should agree with its direct 
object when that object precedes it, it requires some attention to 
ascertain what that direct object is. 

812. We have already explained that the word which in a sentence 
answers the question what ? or whom ? put to the verb, is the direct 
34 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

object of that verb ; the only difficulty consists, then, in giving a 
proper answer to that question. 

We shall, then, examine separately the several cases in which a 
past participle may be used in a sentence, and assist the student in. 
rinding the word which should answer the two questions we have 
just mentioned; then, the direct object being discovered, the only 
question will be, whether it is placed before or after the participle ; 
if before, the participle should agree with it ; if after, the participle 
should remain invariable. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES CONJUGATED WITH AVOIR, TO HAVE, IN NEUTER VERES. 

813. Neuter verbs have no direct object ; therefore, when they are 
conjugated with avoir, to have, their past participles remain invaria- 
ble ; as in, 

The five hours I have slept have quite Les cinq heures que j'at dormi m'ont 

restored me. tout-a-fait remis. 

The ten years I lived in France were Les dix annees que j'ai vecu en France 

the most happy in my life. ont ete les plus heureuses de ma vie. 

In these two sentences, the verbs dormir and vivre are neuter, for 
we cannot say, to sleep, or to live, some thing or some one ; they have 
for their indirect objects the nouns hours and years; for, although 
there is no preposition expressed before them, ft is evident that these 
sentences are elliptical, and mean, the five hours during which, &c, 
and the ten years during which, &c. ; they stand, therefore, instead of: 

Les cinq heures pendant les quelles j'a? dormi, &c, 
Les dix annees pendant les quelles j'ai vecu, &c, 

which shows evidently that the nouns heures and annees, represented 
by the relative pronoun les quelles, are the indirect, and not the direct, 
objects of the past participles following ; hence no agreement. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES USED WITH THE AUXILIARY VBRB ETRE, TO EE, IN 
REFLECTED VERES. 

814. When speaking of reflected verbs, we have explained how 
these verbs are idiomatically conjugated with the auxiliary verb to be, 
tire; but this does not alter their nature; the analysis of sentences 
constructed with such verbs shows clearly that the verb etre is there 
used instead of avoir, to have ; these verbs have not assumed the 
passive form ; they have remained, in reality, either active or neuter, 



VERB. 399 

and their participles should follow the rules we have given for these 
two kinds of verbs ; thus we write, making the participle agree : 

Here are the letters which they have Voici les lettres gu'ils se sont adresstes % 
addressed to each other, 

because, if we put to the verb the question, what? as: they have 
addressed — what? the answer, letters, shows that this noun is the 
direct object of the participle addressed, which requires that participle 
to agree with it in number and gender. The reflected pronoun se 
answers the question, to whom? and, being then the indirect object of 
the participle, has no bearing on it. 

Bat we write, without making the participle agree : 

They have addressed letters to each lis se sont adresse des lettrea, 
other, 

because the past participle, adresse, is followed by its direct object, 
lettres. 

We also write, making the participle agree : 

They have loved each other tenderly, lis se sont tendrement aimts, 

because the direct object of the verb is the reflected pronoun se, which, 
relating to the nominative pronoun Us, plural masculine, requires the 
participle to be used in the same number and gender as this pronoun. 
But we write, without making the participle agree : 

They have written to each other, lis se sont ecrit, 

because the verb ecrire has no direct object, the pronoun se standing 
here instead of to each other, which is the indirect object of that verb, 
and has, therefore, no influence over it. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES OF VERBS WHICH ARE NEVER USED EXCEPT IN THE 
REFLECTED FORM. 

815. There are a certain number of verbs in French which are 
only used in the reflected form, although they do not assume that 
form in English; in such cases, the past participle should a]wa)^s 
agree with the reflected pronoun which precedes the verb, this pro- 
noun being always considered as the direct object of the participle ; 
as in, 

We have abstained from all reflec- Nous nous sommes abstenus de toutes 
tiona. reflexions. 



400 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

(Speaking to a lady.) When you shall Quand vous vous serez repentie de vos 

have repented of your sins, you may fautes, vous pourrez esperei votre 

hope to be forgiven. pardon. 

Our troops have taken possession of Nos troupes se sont emparees de la ville. 
the city. 

There is, however, a verb which is an exception to this rule ; it 
is the verb s'arroger, to arrogate, in which the reflected pronoun 
always stands as the indirect object of the verb ; thus, we write, 
without making the participle agree : 

They have arrogated to themselves lis se sont arroge des droits qui sont 
privileges which are intolerable, intolerables, 

because the reflected pronoun se is the indirect object of the parti- 
ciple, whilst its direct object, droits, is placed after it, and has, there- 
fore, no influence over it ; but we write, making the participle agree : 

The rights which they have arrogated Les droits qu'ils se sont arroges sont 
to themselves are intolerable, intolerables, 

because droits, the direct object of the participle, is placed before it. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES OF REFLECTED VERBS ORIGINATING FROM NEUTER 

VERBS. 

816. Neuter verbs having no direct object, their past participles 
should remain invariable, whatever may be the form which they 
assume ; such should, then, be the case when any of those verbs are 
used in the reflected form. Thus, we write, without making the par- 
ticiple agree : 

They have injured themselves very lis se sont beaucoup nui par leur mau- 

much by their bad conduct. vaise conduite. 

They saw each other, and were pleased lis se sont vus, et ils se sont plu. 

with each other. 

In the first sentence, nuire signifies, to do harm to some one; 
therefore, the pronoun se stands for to themselves, and is the indirect 
object of the verb ; in the latter, plaire signifies, to be agreeable, and 
se stands for to each other ; the pronoun se is, then, an indirect object 
in either case, and, therefore, has no bearing on the participle ; but, 
voir being an active verb, the pronoun se, which precedes it, signifies, 
each other, and is the direct object of that verb ; hence the agree- 
ment of the participle vu. 

817. The following verbs are the only ones which, with the re- 
flected form, derive their origin from neuter verbs : 

Se plaire, to please one another, or to delight in. 

Se deplaire, to displease one another, or to be displeased. 



VERB. 401 

Se complaire, to be pleased with, to be happy in. 

Se rire, to laugh at, to mock. 

Se sourire, to smile at one's self. 

Se parler, to speak to one's self, or to one another. 

Se succeder, to succeed one another. 

Se nuire, to injure one's self, or one another. 

Se convenir, to suit one another. 

Se ressembler, to resemble one's self, or one another. 

Se suffire, to be sufficient to one's self, or one another. 

Consequently, the past participles of these verbs remain invariable. 

The rules contained in this chapter and those which precede it 
would be sufficient for any scholar who, understanding them well, 
should take proper care in their application ; but experience has 
proved to us that this application presents sometimes difficulties which, 
in order to be easily overcome, require to be explained at some length. 
We hope that the following illustrations will suffice for that purpose. 



REMARKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE RULES IN REGARD TO THE PAST PAR- 
TICIPLE. 

818. Excepte, vu, attendu, y compris, suppose, ci-inclus, ci-joint, 
&c. 

We have said that the past participle, used without an auxiliary, 
agrees as an adjective with its antecedent, or the noun which it quali- 
ifies ; but in the following sentences : 

The inhabitants were put to the sword, Les habitans furent passes au fil de 

except women and children, l'epee, excepte les femmes et les en- 

fants, 
He sold his mansion, the farm in- II vendit son chateau, y compris la 

eluded, ferme, 

This circumstance being supposed, Suppose cette circonstance, quel parti 

what course will you take 1 prendrez vous % 

Seeing your levity, I cannot trust you. Vu votre legerete,' je ne puis me fier 

a vous, 
Considering his infirmity, he was ex- Attendu son infirmite, il fut exempte du 

empted from military service, service militaire, 

the words excepte, y compris, suppose, vu, attendu, are elliptically 
used as prepositions, and consequently remain invariable ; excepte is 
put for hormis, except, with the exception of, it V exception de; y com- 
pris, for azec, with ; vu and attendu, for it cause de, on account of. 

When these words are not used as prepositions, they follow the 
rules of the participles ; as in, 

Exempted from the common law of Excepte" e de la loi commune, cette femme 
nature, this woman lived one hun- vecut cent vingt ans. 
dred and twenty years. 

34* 



402 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

We all went out, our daughters being Nous sortimes, nos filles exceptits. 
excepted. 

The reason of the invariableness of these five words, and others 
of a similar nature, may also be found in the ellipsis of the verb 
to have, which takes place in some cases ; as, for instance, when we 
say : 

They murdered the inhabitants except On massacra les habitans (ayant) ex- 

the children, cepte les enfants, 

After ten o'clock I shall not wait any (Ayant) passe dix heures, je ne voua 

longer for you, attendrai plus, 

Paid one hundred dollars to Mr. S**, (Ayant) paye cent gourdes a M. S**, 
Received two hundred dollars of Mr. (Ayant) recu deux cents gourdes de M. 

S**, S**, 

You will find here, included, a copy of Vous trouvez ci-inclus, or c\-joint copie, 

what you want, de ce que vous demandez ; or vous 

trouverez ci-incluse, or ci-jointe la 
copie, de ce que vous demandez, 

it is seen that the compound participles ci-inclus, ci-joint, remain inva- 
riable before a noun taken indefinitely, and agree when the noun is 
definite. 
But we say, also : 

Ci-joint la copie, ci-joint les lettres, 

without agreement ; in such cases, these expressions ought to be con- 
sidered as adverbial. 



OF THE PAST PARTICIPLES OF VERBS WHICH ARE EITHER ACTIVE OR NEUTER 
ACCORDING TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 

819. There are, in French, a certain number of verbs which are 
either active or neuter, according to their signification ; — from what 
precedes it results, that, when active, the past participle of those verbs 
should agree with their direct object, provided it precedes them ; and, 
when neuter, that past participle should remain invariable. 

The only question, then, is, to ascertain in what signification those 
verbs are either active or neuter. 

We will give here a list of some of those verbs ; the same mode of 
reasoning should be applied to the others, and good dictionaries will 
always give sufficient indications to use them properly. 

Servir. The verb servir is active when it signifies to serve a per- 
son in the capacity of an assistant, or to serve one's country; it is neuter 
in the meaning of, to be useful to some one, or for some thing, on a par- 
ticular occasion ; therefore, we shall write the first of the following 



VERB. 



403 



sentences, making the participle agree, whilst in the next, it shall 
remain invariable. 



This servant served us faithfully for Ce domestique rums a servis fideleraent 

twenty years. pendant vingt ans. 

This servant has been very useful to us Ce domestique nous a (tous) bien servi 

during our travel. pendant notre voyage. 

Aider. The verb aider is active when it signifies to help, to relieve; 
it generally implies the idea of assistance, as the result of an impulse 
of the soul or mind ; it is neuter when it means to give a temporary 
assistance to some one in doing a thing, to share the trouble with 
him, to contribute to the end of the action expressed by the verb follow- 
ing ; according to this definition, we should write the first of the next 
two sentences, making the participle agree, whilst it should remain 
invariable in the other. 



Your father has helped us very much in Votre pere nous a beaucoup aides dans 

our distress. nos malheurs. 

Why did you not help us to come Pourquoi ne nous (to us) avez-vous pas 

down 1 aide a descendre. 

Applaudir. The verb applaud ir is active when it means to clap the 
hands ; it is neuter when it signifies to approve, to praise ; hence the 
spelling of the participle applaudi, in the following sentences : 



Have you not approved of our having Ne nous (to us) avez-vous pas applaudi 

acted as we did '? d'en avoir agi ainsi 1 

Did the audience applaud them after Le public, les a-t-il applaudis apres leur 



they had sung the first piece 



premier morceau 



Commander. Commander is active when it signifies to command, to 
inspire, to have the command of, to order a thing to be done ; but it is 
neuter when it means to give orders to some one, to rule over, to mas- 
ter ; as in, 



The sacrifice which honor commanded 

us has been accomplished. 
The armies of Napoleon were always 

victorious when he commanded them 

himself. 
Your dressmaker brought the dresses 

which you had ordered to be made 

for your daughter. 
When do you set out 1 We have been 

ordered to get ready to start to-mor- 
row. 
A prince rules his subjects, a father his 

children, a master hi3 servants. 



Nous avons fait tous les sacrifices que 

1'honneur nous a commandes. 
Les armees de Napoleon ont toujours 

ete victorieuses quand il les a com- 

mandees en personne. 
Votre couturiere a apporte les robes que 

vous aviez commandees pour votre 

fille. 
Quand partez-vous 1 On nous (to us) 

a commande de nous tenir prets a 

parti r demain. 
Un prince commande a. ses sujets, un 

pere d ses enfants, un maitre d ses 

domestiques. 



404 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Fuir. The verb fuir is active when used in its natural sense, and 
implies the idea of an actual flight ; it is neuter when used metaphor- 
ically : as in, 

The enemy has fled from us. L'ennemi nous a fms. 

Time fled from us. Le temps nous a.fui (before us.) 

The verb fuir has many other meanings in which it is neuter ; but 
as it does not admit then of any object being placed after it, we do 
not mention them here ; in good dictionaries will be found all the 
necessary information on the subject. 

Iusulter. The verb insulter is active when it implies the idea of 
an insult offered by means of words or gestures ; it is neuter when 
speaking of a want of regard for the feelings of another ; as in, 

This man has insulted us grossly. Cet homme nous a grossierement in- 

suites. 
He has insulted us by his luxury. II nous (to us) a insulte par son luxe. 

Manquer. The verb manquer is active when it signifies to miss, and 
neuter in any other meaning ; as in, 

I aimed at them long enough, but how- Je les ai vises assez longtems, mais 
ever, I missed them. cependant, je les ai manqnes. 

Why did you not finish this work 1 ? Be- Pourquoi n'avez-vous pas fini cet ouv- 
cause we were short of money. rage 1 Parceque l'argent nous (to 

us) a manque. 

We deem the preceding illustrations sufficient to give the student a 
correct idea of the difficulty attending verbs of this description ; he 
knows now that before deciding about the spelling of a past participle, 
when it is preceded by its object, he must ascertain whether that par- 
ticiple, according to the sense of the sentence, belongs either to an 
active or neuter verb ; he will always find in a good dictionary all the 
information which the case may recpiire. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES FOLLOWED EY AN ADJECTIVE OR ANOTHER PAST PAR- 
TICIPLE. 

820. We say : 

They have believed that we were guilty, On nous a cms coupables par ce qu'on 
because they have seen that we were nous a vus embarrasses. 
confused. 

Tliey have believed, whom? us; they have seen, whom? us. This pro- 
noun, us, nous, is evidently here the direct object of the two verbs to 
believe and to see; therefore, the past participles must agree with it; 



VERB. 



405 



and the adjectives coupable and embarrasst have no influence over 
them. 

821. But in the following sentence must the participle agree? 

I sent my letter to the post-office as J'ai envoy e ma lettre a la poste aussi- 
soon as I had finished it. tot que je-l'ai eu finie. 

Here fai eu fini is bat a single verb, as favais Jini, I had done ; 
and if we analyze the sentence by asking the question ichat? to each 
participle, we find: As soon as I had, What? finished; What? it; 
therefore, the pronoun it, which relates to the feminine noun letter, 
is then the direct object of the participle finie, and not of eu ; hence eu 
remains invariable, and finie agrees with lettre, and takes the fem- 
inine ; but we write, 

This letter, I had it written from the Cette lettre, je Z'ai eue ecrite de la 
hand of the king himself, main meme du roi, 

because the participle eu expresses the idea of possession, and must 
agree with lettre, which is the thing possessed. 

PAST PARTICIPLES FOLLOWED BY THE NOMINATIVE OF THE VERB. 

822. Nothing can replace the enjoyment Rien ne peut suppleer la joie qu'ont 
destroyed by remorse. detruite les remords. 

The nominative having no influence over the past participle in 
verbs which are conjugated with avoir, it matters not whether it is 
placed before or after the verb. The direct object in this sentence is 
joie; it is placed before the participle ; therefore, this participle should 
agree with it. 



PAST PARTICIPLE FOLLOWED BY AN INFINITIVE, WHICH IS ITSELF PRECEDED 
BY A PREPOSITION. 

823. Study the lesson which you have Etudiez la lecon que vous avez oublie 

forgotten to learn. d'apprendre. 

Study the lesson which has been given Etudiez la lecon qu'on vous a donnee a 

you to learn. apprendre. 

In the first example, the participle does not agree, because its direct 
object is the verb which follows it ; for it is not the lesson which has 
been forgotten, since it has not been learned, but it is to learn it which 
has been forgotten ; the meaning of the sentence is this : 

You have forgotten to learn your les- Vous avez oublie d'apprendre votre 
6on ; study it. lecon ; etudiez la. 






406 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



In the other example, on the contrary, logon is the direct object of 
the past participle, represented by que; because there would-be 
nothing to learn if the lesson had not been given ; therefore, the past 
participle must agree with it. There is always an easy method of 
ascertaining when the agreement should take place in such sentences ; 
there is agreement when the word which is considered as the direct 
object may be placed between the participle and the preposition which 
precedes the infinitive and make sense. Thus, as we may say : 

On a donne la lepon a apprendre, 
and we cannot say : 

On a oublie la lepon d' apprendre, 

but 

On a oublie d'apprendre la lepon; 

the participle must agree in the first case, and not in the second. 
We should write, also : 

How many difficulties he had to sur- Combien de difficulty il a eues a sur- 
mount, monter, 

because we may say : 

II a eu des difficultes d surmonter 

Here are the enemies which the queen Voila les ennemis que la reine a eus a 

had to fight. combattre. 

In order to judge of the miraculous ex- Pour juger de la propagation miracu- 

tension of the Christian faith, we leuse de la foi Chretienne, il faut 

must consider what obstacles it had considerer les obstacles 9«'elle a eus 

to surmount. a surmonter. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES IMMEDIATELY FOLLOWED BY A VERB IN THE PRESENT 
TENSE OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

824. When a past participle, instead of being separated by a prep- 
osition from a verb in the present tense of the infinitive mood, is 
immediately followed by that infinitive, it should be ascertained 
whether the noun or pronoun which precedes it, is the object of the 
participle or that of the infinitive which follows it; — in the former 
case, the participle should agree with that noun or pronoun ; in the 
latter, it should remain invariable. There would be no difficulty in 
cases of this kind, if the question what? being put to the participle, 



VERB. 



407 



were properly answered ; but this is not always easily done, and 
requires some explanation. When I say : 

The woman I have heard sing, 

the answer to the question what ? or whom ? is easily made ; I have 
heard the woman who was singing ; woman is, then, the direct 
object of the participle heard ; it is placed before it; therefore, heard 
should agree with woman, and we should write : 

La femme que j'ai entendue chanter. 

But, in the following : 

The song which I have heard sung, (sing, in French,) 

the answer to the question what ? or whom ? is not always properly 
made ; most people would say, I have heard the song ; but the song 
has not been heard singing, because a song does not sing ; it is, then, 
some one that you have heard ; doing what? singing the song ; there- 
fore, song is the object of the infinitive to sing, used in French instead 
of the past participle sung in English, and that infinitive is itself the 
object of the participle ; for you have heard what J to sing ; — what? 
the song ; hence the participle should remain invariable ; and we 
should write : 

La chanson que j'ai entendu chanter. 

From this explanation it results, that, whenever the infinitive which 
follows the past participle can be changed into a present participle 
and make sense, the noun or pronoun which precedes that past parti- 
ciple is its direct object, and commands the agreement. When, on the 
contrary, that transformation being made, the sentence presents no 
sense, the noun or pronoun is the object of the infinitive ; that infini- 
tive is itself the object of the participle, and, being placed after it, 
has no influence over it. According to these principles, if we wished 
to say : 

They were suffered to be taken by surprise by the enemy, 

we should write, the participle remaining invariable : 

On les a laissi surprendre par l'ennemi ; 

because, by analyzing the se/.'.cnce, we find, that, instead of taking 
the enemy by surprise, it was the enemy which did it ; the natural 



408 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

construction should, then, be : they suffered the enemy to overtake them, 
which shows that the pronoun les is not the object of the participle, 
but that of the infinitive ; hence no agreement. But, if we should say : 

They were suffered to take the enemy by surprise, 

the participle laisse, in the French sentence, 

On les a laisses surprendre l'ennerai, 

should no longer remain invariable, because then the infinitive sur- 
prendre might be changed into the present participle surprenant, and 
make sense ; for the meaning would be : they have left, whom] them ; 
what were they doing? they were surprising the enemy; — which 
would show that the pronoun les is the object of the participle laisse, 
and not that of the infinitive, as in the former sentence. 

825. A past participle, when followed by an infinitive, may be pre- 
ceded by two direct objects ; in which case it never remains invariable, 
because one belongs to the infinitive, and the other to the participle, 
as in the following : 

Such is, ray son, the cause of the tears Telle est, mon fils, la cause des larmes 
which you have seen me shed, — (It que tu m'as vue verser, — (C'est une 
is a mother who speaks,) mere qui parle,) 

in which larmes is the direct object of verser, and me, that of the 
participle vu. 

826. The two following sentences come under the control of these 
rules : 

The persons who were thought danger- Les personnes qti'on a crues dange- 

ously wounded have received but reusement blessees, n'out recu que 

slight bruises. de legeres contusions. 

The persons who, I have been assured, Les personnes qu'on m'a assure" avoir 

have been dangerously wounded, ete dangereusement blessees, n'ont 

have received but slight bruises. recu que de legeres contusions. 

In the first phrase, the past participle crues in fact relates to the 
noun personnes, and may, by decomposing the sentence, be constructed 
with this word, or a pronoun which represents it ; as in, 

t,, , , ., , . j j ( On les a crues blessees ; 

They have been thought wounded; < ^i, . ,. . , , ' , 

J ° ' ( Elles ont ete crues blessees ; 

whereas, in the last phrase, the past participle does not modify the noun 
personnes ; les personnes assurees would have no meaning, because the 
verb assurer is neuter in this meaning ; when speaking of persons we 



VERB. 



409 



say, to assure to a person that a fact has taken place, and not, to assure 
a person, &c. ; thus, we could not say : 

m, 11 jj i C On les a assurees grievement blessees, 

They have been assured dangerously S t?h + •♦- - ■< «. ui 

f , , ° J 1 Elles ont ete assurees gnevement bles- 

' C sees, 

for, by analyzing the sentence, we find : 

They have assured, what 1 That they On a assure, quoi 1 Qu'elles devaient 

ought to be dangerously wounded, or etre dangereusement blessees; or 

That diey had been dangerously wound- Qu'elles avaient ete dangereusement 

ed; blessees ; 

and, as the sense does not allow the pronoun que to be the direct 
object of the participle, the agreement does not take place. The 
following illustrations, taken from our best writers, will confirm the 
preceding rule still more strongly : 



The words which they said had been 

pronounced. 
It is a thing which they thought would 

be convenient to me. 
The individuals whom they thought to 

be suspicious. 
Above the desk, an unknown hand, 

which was said to be that of the lord 

of tbe village, has written these 

verses. 
Louis XIV. had in his soul a part of 

the grandeur which, people had 

thought until then, existed only 

around him. 



Les paroles qu'on a dit avoir ete pro- 

noucees. 
C'est une chose qu'on a pense devoir me 

convenir. 
Les personnes qu'on a pense etre sus- 

pectes. 
Au-dessus du pupitre, une main etran- 

gere, qu'on a dit etre celle du chate- 

lain du village, a ecrit ces vers. 

Louis XIV. avait dans l'ame une partie 
de la grandeur, qu'on avait cru 
jusqu'alors n'exister qu'autour de lui. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES WHICH, BEING PLACED AT THE END OF A SENTENCE, 
HAVE AN INFINITIVE UNDERSTOOD AFTER THEM. 

827. Sometimes the infinitive is understood after the participles of 
the verbs devoir, to owe, pouvoir, to be able, and vouloir, to be will- 
ing, as in the following sentences : 

I rendered him all the services I could. Je lui ai rendu touts les services que 

j'ai jaw (lui rendre.) 

I rendered him all the services I ought. Je lui ai rendu touts les services que 

j'ai du (lui rendre.) 

I rendered him all the services I Je lui ai rendu touts les services que 
wished. j'ai voulu (lui rendre.) 

In these cases, the participle remains invariable, having as a direct 
object the infinitive which is understood. 

But. if the infinitive is not understood after those past participles, 
35 



410 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

they follow the general rule, and agree with their direct ohject when 
placed before them ; as in, 

He has paid me all the sums he owed U m'a paye toutes les sommes qu'il m'a 

me. dues. 

He sticks strongly to what he has II vent fortement les choses gu'il a une 

wished once. fois voulues. 



PAST PARTICIPLE OF THE VERB FAIRE FOLLOWED BY AN INFINITIVE. 

828. The past participle of the verb /aire, when prefixed to an 
infinitive, loses its primitive origin and signification ; it forms, with the 
infinitive, a compound word, at least in the mind of the writer ; they 
become inseparable, and the participle does not change, whatever may 
be its direct object and the place of that object in the sentence ; thus, 
in our mind, this phrase, 

They caused them to leave the place, On les a. fait sortir, 
signifies 

On a. fait sortir eux, 
and not 

On a. fait eux sortir. 

It is evident, then, that the verb /aire has changed its nature and 
signification, and the general rule is not applicable to it. 

PAST PARTICIPLE PRECEDED AND FOLLOWED BY QUE. 

829. The past participle, preceded and followed by gtie, is invaria- 
ble ; as in, 

The answer which I foresaw would- be La reponse que j'avais prevu qu' on vous 

made to you, ferait, 

The troubles in which I saw you, Les embarrass que j'ai vu que vous 

aviez, 

because this participle has always for its direct object the last clause 
of the sentence ; for instance, in this case : 

I had foreseen, what 7 . That they would make you an answer. 
I had seen, what "? That you were in trouble. 

And, as these direct objects are placed after the verb, there is no 
agreement. 



VERB. 411 

PAST PARTICIPLE PRECEDED BY LUI OR LEUR, EMPLOYED INSTEAD OF 
LE, LA, LES. 

830. It is a business which I have left C'est une affaire que je leur ai laisse 
them the trouble to settle together. demeler ensemble. 

The grammatical construction would admit of the direct pronoun 
les, instead of the indirect leur, as in : 

C'est une affaire que je les ai laisses demeler ensemble; 

but usage has made the former construction prevail ; and, by decom- 
posing the sentence, we find it to be : 

C'est une affaire que j'ai laisse a eux le soin de demeler ensemble. 

The direct object being, then, le soin de demeler, &c, placed after 
the participle, there is no agreement. 

These pronouns, lui and leur, for le, la, or les, ought always to be 
preferred when they are preceded by a direct object, whether a noun 
or a pronoun, as in the following : 

I have seen him do it; Je le lui ai vu faire; 

which is better than : 

Je Z'ai vu le faire. 

This is a thing which I heard them C'est une chose que je leur ai entendu 
say ; dire ; 

which is preferable to : 

C'est une chose que je les ai entendus dire. 

Your sister drank the prescription ; I Votre soeur a bu la potion ; je la lui 
have seen her drink it ; ai vu boire ; 

instead of : 

Votre soeur a bu la potion ; je Z'ai vue la boire. 

Analogy would require that the same rule should be applied to 
the pronouns of the first and second persons singular or plural ; but 
usage still interferes here, and most of our best writers make the par- 
ticiple agree with them ; as in, 

This is a question, gentlemen, which C'est une question, messieurs, qu'on 
has been lift for you to decide. vmcs a laisses demeler. 

Such is, my son, the cause of the tears Voila, mon fils, la cause des pleurs que 
which you have seen me shed. vous m'avez vue verser. (Speaking 

of a mother.) 



412 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PAST PARTICIPLE PRECEDED BY LE, REPRESENTING A MEMBER OF A SEN- 
TENCE. 

831. The past participle is always invariable when preceded by V 
representing a part of a sentence ; because V is there instead of cela, 
which, being always singular and masculine, cannot cause the parti- 
ciple of which it is the direct object to take any number or gender. 
We shall, then, write : 

This letter is move interesting than I Cette lettre est plus interessante que 

had supposed (it would be.) je ne Z'avais cru. 

The affair was less serious than I L'affaire est moins serieuse que je ne 

expected (it to be.) Z'avais cru. 

This perfidy has taken place as I had Cette perfidie a eu lieu comme je 

supposed (it would be.) Z'avais suppose. 

Famine happened, as Joseph had fore- La famine arriva comme Joseph /'avait 

told (it would come.) predit. 

These sentences stand instead of the following : 

Cette lettre est plus interessante que je n'avais cru qu'elle etait interessante. 
L'affaire fut moins serieuse que je n'avais pense qu'elle strait serieuse. 
Cette perfidie a eu lieu comme j'avais suppose qu'elle aurait lieu. 
La famine arriva ainsi que Joseph avait predit qu'elle arriverait. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES PRECEDED BY THE PRONOUN EN IN SENTENCES EITHER. 
AFFIRMATIVE, NEGATIVE, OR INTERROGATIVE, WHEN THAT PRONOUN IS NOT 
PRECEDED BY AN ADVERB OF Q.UANTITY. 

832. The pronoun en, signifying always either of it, of that, of 
them, &c, that is to say, taking the place of a pronoun preceded by 
the preposition of, can never be, by itself, the direct object of a verb, 
and, therefore, has no influence over the past participle ; the following 
sentences should, then, be written with the participle remaining inva- 
riable : 

Are you fond of novels'? Yes, and I Aimez-vous les romans 1 Oui, et j'e?i ai 

have read many (of them.) beaucoup lu. 

Have you seen many Indians in Amer- Avez-vous vu beaucoup d'Indiens en 

ica 1 No, I have not seen many (of Amerique 1 Non, je n'en ai pas vu 

them.) beaucoup. 

There are some very pretty flowers in II y a de tres jolies fleurs dans le jar- 

the garden; have you gathered any din; en avez-vous cueilli? 

(of them f) 

But. if the participle preceded by en had also a direct object placed 
before it, then it should follow the general rule, and agree with that 
object; as in, 

Do your sifters know that I am in Vos sceurs, savent-elles que je suis en 
town 1 Yes; we have informed ville 1 Oui; nous let en a vons infor- 
them of it. mies. 



VERB. 413 

Your friend had a right to refuse my Votre amie avait le droit de refuser ma 
hand ; but I did not believe she would main ; mais je ne croyais pas qu'elle 
boast of it publicly. s'en flit vantee publiquement. 

la the first of these two sentences, the pronoun les is the direct 
object of the participle informe; it relates to sisters, which is feminine 
plural ; in the latter, the reflected pronoun se is the direct object of 
the participle vante ; it relates to friend, which is feminine singular ; 
therefore, the first participle should be feminine plural, and the latter 
feminine singular. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES PRECEDED BY THE PRONOUN EN, IN SENTENCES EX- 
PRESSING EITHER INTERROGATION OR DOUET, WHEN THAT PRONOUN IS 
EITHER PRECEDED OR FOLLOWED BY AN ADVERB OF QUANTITY. 

833. Whenever, a past participle being preceded by the pronoun en, 
this pronoun is accompanied by an adverb of quantity, this adverb 
either precedes or follows the pronoun ; in the latter case, the partici- 
ple always remains invariable ; in the former, on the contrary, it only 
remains invariable when the sentence is interrogative, or implies the 
idea of a doubt ; as in, 

You have bought many books- have you Vous avez achete beaucoup de livres; 
read many of them 1 Yes, I have. en avez-vous lu beaucoup? or, en 

avez-vous beaucoup lu? Oui, j'm ai 
beaucoup lu, or, yen ai lu beaucoup. 

The place of the adverb, either before or after the participle, makes 
no difference in reference to the agreement of this latter word ; for 
euphony is the only reason of adverbs being generally placed between 
the auxiliary and the past participle in compound tenses ; their natural 
place is after the whole verb, the signification of which they modify ; 
by analyzing the preceding sentence, what do we find, then? That 
the adverb beaucoup, which means a great quantity, is the direct object 
of the participle, after which it ought to be placed, and therefore has 
no influence over its termination. 

You have bought mauy books ; how Vous avez achete beaucoup de livres ; 
many of them have you already read 1 combien en avez-vous lu ? Je ne sais 
I do not know how many. pas combien yen ai lu? 

In this sentence, the adverb combien precedes the pronoun en; first, 
in an interrogative proposition, then in one which implies the idea of a 
doubt. By analyzing each of these propositions, we find that the verb 
35* 



414 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



lire has two objects, — the first, combien, meaning what quantity, being 
acted upon directly by the verb ; the second, en, signifying of them, 
showing the pronoun them as receiving the action expressed by the 
verb by means of the preposition of, and having, therefore, no influence 
over the past participle. But combien, being isolated from en, is in fact 
but an adverb ; adverbs have neither number nor gender which they 
could impart to any declinable word with which they are grammatically 
connected ; therefore, the participle should remain invariable. Besides 
this explanation, which is merely grammatical, there is another mode 
of explaining why, in cases similar to the preceding, the participle 
should remain invariable ; it is based on the manner the mind is im- 
pressed whenever we make use of expressions of a similar construc- 
tion. If we should make the participle agree, what word should we 
consider as its direct object 1 There is but one which could impart to 
the participle its number and gender ; it is the noun books understood ; 
but when I say : How many books have you read? for the participle 
read to agree with books, it would be necessary that some books 
should have positively been read, which is not the case here, the in- 
terrogative form of the sentence showing this doubtful state of the 
mind ; the impression made on it, therefore, by the idea represented 
by the word books is too vague to reach the past participle, and com- 
pel it to agree, in the second proposition : I do not know how many of 
them I had read. The same mode of reasoning shows the same 
vagueness in reference to the noun books ; it is evident that the pre- 
dominating idea is represented by the word combien ; it is with the 
idea of the quantity, rather than with the noun books itself, that the 
mind is impressed, since, supposing some books have been read, 
which is not positive, it is only the number which is inquired for ; 
hence, in this last proposition, as well as in the first, the connection 
of the two ideas represented by the words lu and livres is not suffi- 
ciently positive and striking to induce the mind to make the former 
to agree with the latter ; which confirms the rule we have given at the 
beginning of this chapter. 

OF PAST PARTICIPLES PBECEDED BY THE PRONOUN EN, IN AFFIRMATIVE AND 
EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES, WHEN THAT PRONOUN IS PRECEDED BY AN AD- 
VERB OF aUANTITY. 

834. Whenever the pronoun en is preceded by an adverb of quan- 
tity in a sentence which is either exclamative or affirmative, if the 
adverb and the pronoun recall to the mind the idea of a plural noun, 
the participle should agree with that noun ; if, on the contrary, they 



VERB. u 415 

both represent a noun in the singular, the participle remains invaria- 
ble ; as in, 

What pretty flowers ! What an ira- Quelles jolies fleurs! Combien vous en 

mense quantity you have gathered ! avez cueilliea! 

This general lias gained as many bat- Autant ce general a livre de batailles, 

ties as he has fought. autant il en a gagnees. 

By analyzing these two sentences, we shall discover that the partici- 
ples cueilli and gagnt have for their direct objects the nouns fleurs 
and batailles, and not the adverbs of quantity, combien and autant, as 
was the case in the preceding chapter ; and, therefore, they should 
agree with those nouns ; for, if the question : What ? is put to the par- 
ticiples, the answer would be, in the first case, Flowers, in a great 
quantity ; and in the latter, Battles, as many as he has fought. There 
is no doubt here, as in the preceding chapter, whether flowers were 
gathered, and battles fought ; combien and en, autant en, do not repre- 
sent separate ideas ; they are confounded in one, which is flowers in 
the first instance, and battles in the other ; and the idea represented 
by those nouns becomes then so intimately connected with that which 
is imparted by the participles cueilli and gagne, that the agreement of 
the latter with the former should follow as a consequence of the state 
of positiveness in which our mind is in reference to that construction. 

Where is the brandy 1 Here it is. Oil est t'eau de vie? La voici. Com- 
How much you have drank of it ! bien vous en avez bu! Vous serez 
You will be sick ! malade ! 

In this sentence, the adverb combien and the pronoun en do not rep- 
resent a whole, or the separate parts of a whole susceptible of being 
divided into parts, as flowers and several battles are ; the compound 
expression combien en only refers to an indefinite and vague partitive 
idea in reference to the quantity of brandy which was drunk, and the 
mind does not find in this expression the character of positiveness 
which should exist in order to require the agreement of the past par- 
ticiple. In fact, what was drunk? Was it the brandy as a whole? 
No, it was not ; it was only a part of it ; but what part ? A great quan- 
tity, to be sure ; but what amount? All here is vague and indefinite, 
and deprived of the character of positiveness which alone can require 
the agreement of two words together. 

Such are, very likely, the causes, either grammatical or philosophi- 
cal, which have made our best writers, such as Voltaire, La Fontaine, 
Rousseau, Racine, Buffon, Massillon, Domergue, Lemore, Bescher, 
&c, use the participle, in cases similar to the preceding, according 



416 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

to the rules we have given ; which rules are now recognized as laws 
in the language by almost all our modern grammarians. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES PRECEDED BY A NOUN WHICH IS ITSELF. PRECEDED BY 
AN ADVERB OF QUANTITY FOLLOWED BY DE, OF. 

835. Whenever a past participle is preceded by a noun which is 
itself preceded by an adverb of quantity followed by de, of, the past 
participle should agree either with the noun or the adverb, according 
to the idea expressed by the past participle being more intimately 
connected with the one than it is with the other ; as in, 

The more diffidence he had, the less Plus de defiance il a eu, moins de confi- 
confidence he inspired in others. ance il s'est attire. 

What magnificence has our maker dis- Combien, or que de, magnificence le 
played in this vast universe ! createur a deployee dans ce vaste 

univers I 

In the first of these two sentences, the connection exists between 
the participles and the adverbs, and the former remain invariable ; 
in the last, the participle, on the contrary, relates more intimately to 
the noun than it does to the adverb, and it agrees with that noun. 

The only thing, therefore, that is required in cases of this kind, is 
to reflect and try to discover which of the adverb or the noun is most 
intimately connected with the participle, and then to write the parti- 
ciple according to the result of that examination. 



PAST PARTICIPLE USED WITH IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

(Les grandes chaleurs qu'W a fait ont 
beaucoup nui. 
Les grandes chaleurs qu'il y a eu ont 
beaucoup nui. 

When we say of a man : 

He has made a journey, he found II a fait un voyage, il y a eu du plaisir, 
pleasure in it, 

the pronoun il relates to a noun which represents a definite idea ; but 
when I say : 

The weather has been cold, II a fait froid, 

We had much heat, II y a eu de grandes chaleurs, 

It rains, it snows, II pleut, il neige, 

the same pronoun il is indefinite ; it relates to nobody, to no noun 
expressed before, and for that reason the verb is called impersonal. 



VERB. 



417 



Then no word can be called the direct object of a verb, the action of 
which is performed by nobody ; and we write, without agreement, 

The bad weather we had, Les mauvais temps qu'il yata, 

The great heat we had, Les grandes chaleurs qu'il a fait, 

because there is no question here of bad weather had, or great heat 
made, by anybody. The verbs avoir, to have, /aire, to make, have 
lost their former and natural signification, and designate only the 
existence of a fact, and the relative que is not the object of any verb. 
These expressions are purely idiomatical, and do not comport with 
any satisfactory analysis. 



OF PAST PARTICIPLES PRECEDED BY SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED EITHER BY A 
PREPOSITION OR CONJUNCTION, AND AGREEING ONLY WITH ONE. 

837. When a past participle is preceded by several nouns separated 
by a preposition, and with which it could possibly agree, it should be 
ascertained, as we have just explained it in the preceding chapter, 
which of these nouns is the most intimately connected with the parti- 
ciple, and the result of this examination should decide about the agree- 
ment ; as in, 

I have seen this crowd of flatterers dis- J'ai vu disparaitre cettefoule de flatteurs 
appear, which my fortune had formed que ma fortune avait formee autour 
around me. de moi. 

It is evident, that in this sentence, the participle relates to the noun 
crowd, and not to flatterers ; for we do not say that fortune forms flat- 
terers^ but we say, very properly, that fortune forms , or is the cause of, 
a crowd of flatterers ; therefore, the participle should agree with the 
first of the two nouns ; but, in the following, 

I have seen this crowd of flatterers dis- J'ai vu disparaitre cette foule de flat- 
appear, which my fortune had at- teurs que ma fortune avait attires 
tracted around me, autour de moi, 

the idea of attraction expressed by the verb refers to those who have 
attracted rather more than to the crowd which was only the result of 
that attraction, and consequently the participle should agree with 
flatterers, and not with crowd. 

838. We give now a set of examples to illustrate this rule ; as in, 

What an amount of stones they have Quelle quantite de pierres on a tirees de 
already hauled out of the quarry. cette carriere. 



419 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



I had a serious disease, caused by J'eus une maladie serieuse, causae par 

drinking- too large a quantity of la trop grande quantite de liqueurs 

liquor. que j'avais bue. 

How could I, madam, stop this flood of Comment pourrais-je, madame, arreter 

tears, which time has not dried, and ce torrent de larmes que !e temps n'a 

which so many just causes for joy pas epuise, que tant de justes joied 

have not exhausted 1 n'ont pas tari? 

We say, very properly, epuiser, or tarir un torrent, but we could 
not say epuiser or tarir des larmes, the source of which cannot ba 
exhausted till life is not extinct. 

We should, then, write in the plural : 

This flood of tears which he has dried, Ce torrent de larmes qu'il a essuyies, 

because we do not say essuyer un torrent ; but we can say essuyer des 
larmes. 



What does the sinner see in the long Que voit le pecheur dans cette longne 
succession of days which he has suite de jours qu'il a passes sur la 
passed on earth. terre. 



We say passer des jours ; 

What a deluge of evils has he not 

spread over the earth ! 
He has disinherited his daughter as 

well as his sons, 
It is a man or a woman whom they 

have murdered, 



Quel deluge de maux n'avait-il pas re- 

pandus sur la terre ! 
C'est sa fille, aussi bien que ses fils, 

ow'il avait desheritee, 
C'est un homme ou une femme qu'on a 

assassinee. 



making, in this last case, the participle agree with the last noun, 
because the mind is no more interested in one than in the other. 

It is one half of the camp which they C'est la moitie du camp qu'on a brulee. 

have burned. 

Turenne is one of the best generals that Turenne est un des meilleurs generaux 

France has produced. que la France ait produits. 

It is more the general than the officers C'est plus le general que les officiers 

whom they have blamed. que l'on a blame. (The general has 

been blamed.) 



PAST PARTICIPLE WITH THE ADVERB LE PEU. 

839. Le peu, the little, or the few, or the want of, has two differ- 
ent significations ; it means a small quantity, or the want of some- 
thing. 

When it means a small quantity, the agreement is determined by 
the noun which follows it. 



VERB, 419 

When it means the want of anything-, it is with this word, and not 
with the noun following, that the participle agrees ; as in, 

The little affection which you have Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez 
shown him has given him courage, montree lui a donne du courage, 

there is some affection shown. 

The want of affection which you have Le peu d'affection que vous lui avez 
shown him has discouraged him, montre l'a decourage. 

there is no affection shown. 

In the first example, le peu signifies a small quantity, for there has 
been some affection shown ; thus, que relates to affection, which, 
being feminine, governs the participle in the same number. 

In the second example, on the contrary, le peu signifies the want; 
there has been no affection shown, for without the want of affection 
he would not have been discouraged ; then que relates to the want, le 
peu, which, being singular and masculine, governs the participle in 
the same number and gender. 

The participle, preceded by le peu, agrees when the sense of the 
sentence allows the suppression of these two words, and remains 
invariable when that suppression cannot take place. 

In the first sentence, if we suppress le peu, we have : 

L'affection que vous lui avez montree lui a donne du courage, 

which is correct. 

In the second, we have : 

L'affection que vous lui ayez montre l'a decourage, 

which is nonsense. 

Hence agreement in the first case, and none in the other. 

The want of horses for the service of Le peu de chevaux que nous avons eu 
the artillery made us lose the battle. pour le service de l'artillerie, nous a 

fait perdre la bataille. 

The few horses which were given to us Le peu de chevaux qu'on nous a donnis, 
being exhausted, were of no avail. etant extenues, ne servirent a rien. 



OF THE PAST PARTICIPLES COtfTE, VALU, AND PESE. 

840. Coute, valu, and pese, although they are participles from 
neuter verbs, conjugated with to have, are always susceptible of 
agreement ; they are used actively, and signify causer, to cause, 



420 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

cxiger, to require, instead of coiiter ; procurer, to procure, rapporter, 
to bring, instead of valoir and peser, to weigh. 
Thus we say with agreement, 

The trouble which this affair has Les peines que cette affaire m'a coti- 
caused me, tees, 

that is to say, m'a causees ; 

The honors which this office has pro- Les honneurs que cette place m'a valus, 

cured to me, 

Give the two pounds of sugar which Donnez-moi les deux livres de sucre que 

you have weighed for me, vous nvezpesees pour moi, 

this is to say, have procured to me; because here, the verbs couter, 
valoir, and peser are used actively, and preceded by their direct 
objects, peines, honneurs and livres. 

841. Remarks. We have said that the only rule about the past par- 
ticiple was to make it agree with its direct object when that direct 
object precedes it in the construction of a sentence, and we have given 
all the necessary explanations to enable a person to find what is the 
word which is in reality the direct object of that participle ; but there 
are a few cases in which the agreement of the past participle takes 
place, when the noun with which it agrees does not appear clearly to 
be its direct object ; we advert to some reflective verbs whose signifi- 
cation does not suffer the analysis of the sentence in the ordinary 
manner; as in, 

To suspect, Se douter, 

To perceive, S'apercevoir de quelque chose, 

To find fault with, S'attaquer a quelqu'un, 

To seize, S'emparer d'un object, 

To abstain, S'abstenir, 

To abstain, S'echapper, 

and others similar to these. 

We will now examine into these difficulties, and show how to 
decide upon them. 

We write the following sentences showing the agreeement, 

She has suspected that her servants Elle s'est doutee que ses domestiques la 

used to rob her, volaient, 

She has perceived that her husband de- Elle s'est aperpue que son mari la 

ceived her, trompait, 

"Why has this lady found fault with me Pourquoi cette dame s'est-clle attaquee 

on account of a fact which I know a moi pour un fait auquel je suis 

nothing about 1 completement etranger 1 

The English have always seized upon Les Anglais se sont toujours empares de 

everything they thought proper, with- ce qui leur a convenu sans egard 

out consulting right or justice, pour le droit et la justice, 



VERB. 



421 



If these children had abstained from 
eating unripe fruit, they would not 
have been sick, 

The prisoners have escaped from jail, 



Si ces enfants s'etaient abstenus de 
manger des fruits verts il n'auraient 
pas ete malades. 

Les prisonniers se sont echappes de 
prison, 



although it is impossible to analyze these sentences in any way satis- 
factory to the mind ; because we do not say, in French. 



Doubt somebody, 

Perceive one's self, 

Find fault with somebody, 

Escape somebody, 

Seize some one, 

Abstain from some one, &c, 



Douter quelqu'un, 
Apercevoir soi-meme, 
Attaquer quelqu'un, 
Echapper quelqu'un, 
Emparer quelqu'un, 
Abstenir quelqu'un, 



with the meaning given to these verbs in the preceding sentences ; 
yet the reason why usage has made them agree is probably because 
they could be constructed as follows : 

She has put herself in doubt (for she Elle s'est mise en doute. 

suspected.) 
She went to perceive (for she per- Elle s'est mise a apercevoir. 

ceived.) 
She went to find fault (for she found Elle s'est mise a attaquer. 

fault with.) 
She took possession (for she has Elle s'est mise en possession. 

seized.) 

But whatever may be the reason, it is matter of fact that these verbs, 
and others of a similar nature, are made to agree by the tyrannical 
power of usage. We say, also, 

842. This house has been built in a few Cette maison s'est bdtie en peu de 

months. mois. 

This house has been well sold, well Cette maison s'est bien vendue, bien 

rented. louee. 

This house has been demolished in a Cette maison s'est dimolie en peu de 

short time. terns. 

Because we use to say, figuratively, 

Cette maison se batit, 
" se demolit, 

" se loue, 

" se vend : 



in which it i3 evident that the mind operates upon the neutral nature 
of these reflective verbs and makes them active ; thus, when, in order 
to find the direct object of these participles, we ask the question, 
36 



422 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

What? we must be satisfied with such an irrational answer as the 
following : 

This house has built, what 1 Itself. 

" demolished, what 1 Itself. 

" sold, " " 

" rented, " " 

because, if we were not, the pronoun preceding the verb ought to be 
its indirect object and represent ii, to, with the direct pronoun, which 
would be still worse ; we could never understand the meaning of the 
following sentences : 



211e a doute d 


elle meme. 


" apercu 
" attaque 
" empare 
" abstenu 
" echappe 


" a quelqu' 

a 

cc 
cc 


Cette maison a bati a elle m6me. 
" a loue " 
" a demoli " 
" a vendu '* 



Thus, we may lay down the following rule : 

The participle of a reflective verb agrees with the reflective pro- 
noun which precedes it, when this pronoun is identical with the nom- 
inative, and cannot possibly be replaced by the same pronoun pre- 
ceded by the preposition tl, to. 



QUESTIONS. 



789. How can a verb in the infinitive mood stand in reference to another 
verb "? 

789. When used as a nominative, what person and number does it govern *? 

789. When two verbs follow one another, can the second one be indiffer- 
ently used either in the subjunctive or indicative mood with que, or in the infin- 
itive preceded or not by a preposition 1 

790. When two verbs follow one another, and the last relates to a noun or 
pronoun expressed in the sentence, on what condition can it be used in the 
infinitive mood 1 (The pupil should give some examples of correct and incor- 
rect sentences.) 

791. When the second verb has an antecedent expressed in the same sen- 
tence, can it always be used in the infinitive mood 1 If not, how should its 
antecedent stand in that sentence so that the infinitive mood could be used 1 (The 
pupil should analyze the examples given in the grammar, and show how they 
are either correct or incorrect.) 



VERB. 423 

792. Although the last verb has for its antecedent the object of the first, can 
that verb be always used in the infinitive, and, if not, what is the condition 
required so that it could be so expressed 1 

793. Can the English expressions, 2" wish I could, I wish I was, &c, be 
expressed literally in French 1 Why not 1 How should they be turned 1 

794. How many verbs in the infinitive mood can be used one after another, 
conformably with the genius of the language 1 

795. Does not euphony sometimes require that the indicative or subjunctive 
moods should be used instead of the infinitive ^ In what cases 7 . 

796. What is the termination of the present participle in French 1 To what 
persons does this participle apply, and does it ever agree with its antecedent % 

797. How is a present participle distinguished from an adjective when they 
are both expressed by the same word % (The pupils should explain the rule, 
and give some examples of each kind.) 

798. What does an adjective ending in ant always express 1 With what 
verb can it always be constructed 1 Has it any object, either direct or indirect 1 

799. What should a word ending in ant express for it to be a present parti- 
ciple 1 

800. (Make the pupils analyze the examples given in the grammar in this 
paragraph.) 

801. Are all the present participles susceptible of being used like adjectives 1 

802. Are there not some present participles which change their spelling 
when employed as adjectives, although the pronunciation of the two words is 
the same in either case 1 (The pupils should learn these exceptions by heart.) 

803. When a word ending in ant is either followed by an object or preceded 
by ne, what is it, an adjective or a participle 1 

804. When a word ending in ant expresses an idea of cause or motive, and 
may be preceded by one of the conjunctions as or since, parceque, what is it, an 
adjective or a participle 1 

805. When a word ending in ant expresses an action with an idea of 
special time, or sameness of time, is it an adjective or a participle % 

806. When a word ending in ant admits of the preposition en being placed 
before it, what part of speech is it 1 

807. In how many different ways can a past participle be used in French 1 

808. When a past participle is used without an auxiliary, with what does it 
agree 1 

809. When a past participle is conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be, 
in passive or neuter verbs, with what does it agree 1 

810. When a past participle is conjugated with avoir, to have, in an active 
verb, with what does it agree 1 

811. Why does the past participle of an active verb agree with the direct 
object of that verb, when that direct object precedes it, and why does it not 
agree when it is followed by that object 1 

812. What question should be put to a past participle conjugated with avoir, 
to have, in order to discover what is the direct object of that participle 1 

813. Do past participles remain invariable in neuter verbs conjugated with 
to have 1 Why do those past participles remain invariable % 

814. When a verb is used in the reflected form, what is to be done in order 
to ascertain whether its past participle has a direct object or not, and what 
word is, in fact, that direct object 1 

814. Is the reflected pronoun always the direct or the indirect object of the 
past participle 1 If that pronoun is not the direct object of the participle, has it 
any influence over that participle J . 

814. If the past participle of a reflected verb has no object, does the par- 
ticiple remaiu invariable 1 

815. When a reflected verb is one of those verbs which can never be used 
in any other form, with what does its participle always agree 1 What is the 
only exception to that rule 1 



424 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



816. Do past participles originating from neuter verbs ever change 1 Why 
notl 

817. What are the reflective verbs which originate from neuter verbs 1 

818. Are there not some participles which are sometimes used as prepo- 
sitions 1 In what case 1 and which are they 1 

818. Is there not another manner which is more rational to explain why 
these participles do not agree when they are placed before nouns 1 

818. In what case do the expressions, ci-inclus, ci-joint, either remain inva- 
riable or agree with the noun which follows them 1 

819. Are there not, in French, verbs which are either active or neuter, 
according to their signification 1 How do the past participles of those verbs 
agree in either case 1 (The pupils should be made to learn the verbs of that 
class which are given in the grammar, and to explain in what signification they 
are either active or neuter.) 

820. Has the fact of a past participle being followed either by an adjective 
or another past participle, any influence over the agreement of that past parti- 
ciple 1 

821. When a compound tense is formed of one of the compound tenses of 
the verb to have, as an auxiliary, and a past participle, which agrees with the 
object of the verb, the participle of the auxiliary, or that of the verb used in that 
compound tense 1 

821. But, when the compound tense of the verb to have is not connected 
with the past participle following, so as to form a compound tense of the whole, 
does not then the participle had agree with the object of that verb 1 (Make the 
pupils analyze the two sentences given as examples in the grammar.) 

822. Has the fact of a verb being followed by its nominative any influence 
over the agreement of the past participle of that verb 1 

823. When a past participle is followed by a verb in the infinitive, from 
which it is separated by a preposition, how should it be ascertained whether the 
noun or pronoun which precedes the participle as an object is either the object of 
the participle or that of the infinitive following 1 (Make the pupils parse the 
sentences given in the grammar.) 

824. When a participle is immediately followed by a verb in the infinitive 
mood, how should it be ascertained whether that participle should agree or not 
with the noun or pronoun which precedes it as an object 1 (The pupils should 
analyze the examples given in the grammar.) 

825. When a participle, being followed by an infinitive, is preceded by two 
direct objects, should it necessarily agree with one of the two 1 

826. (Make the pupils analyze the sentences given in this paragraph.) 

827. Whenever the participles, pu, du, rendu, &c, being used at the end 
of a sentence, have an infinitive understood after them, are they invariable in 
their termination 1 Why is it so 1 

827. But are those participles still invariable when they, in fact, end the 
sentence without any verb in the infinitive mood being understood after them % 
Why this difference 1 

828. When the participle of the verb /aire is followed by an infinitive, does 
its termination remain invariable 1 Wliy is it so 1 

829. When a participle is followed and preceded by que, does it ever agree 
with the object which precedes it % Why does it not agree 1 

830. When a sentence is idiomatically constructed with either of the pro- 
nouns lui or leur, instead of le, la, or Its, does the participle which has lui or leur 
for its object remain invariable 1 Why so 1 How is it when either le, la, or 
les is used instead of lui or leur. 

830. Which construction should be preferred, that which admits of le, la, or 
les, or that which admits of the participle being preceded by lui or leur 1 

831. Whenever a past participle is preceded by the objective pronoun l' t 
referring to a part of a sentence, or an idea, of which it takes the place, does 
the participle remain invariable 1 Why is it so 1 



PREPOSITION 425 

832. When a past participle is preceded by the pronoun en as its object, in 
a sentence which is either affirmative, negative, or interrogative, has this pro- 
noun any influence over the participle when it is not preceded by an adverb of 
quantity 1 Why so 1 

833 When, in a sentence expressing either interrogation or doubt, the pro- 
noun en, being followed by an adverb of quantity, is used as the object of a 
past participle, does that participle remain invariable 1 

833. If the pronoun en, instead of being followed by an adverb of quantity, 
was preceded by it, in what kind of sentences should the past participle remain 
invariable 1 

834. When the pronoun en, being preceded by an adverb of quantity, is used 
in a sentence which is either affirmative or exclamative, and relates to a noun in 
the plural, does the participle following remain invariable 1 If it does not, why 
is it so % 

834. If the pronoun en, in the same circumstances as above, should take the 
place of a noun used in the singular, should the participle agree with that noun '? 
and, if it does not, why is it so 1 

835. When a past participle is preceded by a noun which is itself preceded 
by an adverb of quantity, from which it is separated by the preposition de, of, 
in what case should that participle agree either with the noun or the adverb of 
quantity 1 

836. Does the participle of an impersonal verb ever agree with the noun 
which precedes it 1 If it does not agree, why is it so 1 

837. When a past participle is preceded by two nouns separated by the 
preposition de, of, with which of these two nouns should that participle agree 1 

838. (Make the pupils analyze the examples given in this paragraph.) 

839. When the past participle is preceded by a noun separated by the prepo- 
sition of, de, from the adverb le peu, what should be the signification of le pen 
for the termination of the participle either to remain invariable or to agree with 
the noun which follows lepcu 1 

840. Do the participles, coute, valu, and pese, although originating from 
neuter verbs, remain invariable when they are preceded by their object 1 

841. _Are the participles of the reflected verbs se douter, s'appercevoir, s'atta- 
quer, s'emparer, s'abstenir, &c, invariable 1 If not, with what do they always 
agree 1 

841. How can the agreement of these participles be accounted for 1 

842. How can it be explained why the participles of the reflected verbs 
se batir, se vendre, se louer, &c, agree with the reflected pronoun of those verbs 1 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



843. The word Preposition, which is expressed in Latin by prcepo- 
sitio, is formed of prce, before, avant, devant, and ponere, to place, 
placer. Preposition, then, means : what is placed before. 

Prepositions are words which serve to express or show the several 
relations which persons and things have with each other. 

Prepositions are invariable ; they have neither gender nor number ; 
alone, they express nothing ; they have a signification only when 
followed by an object expressed or understood. 
36* 



426 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

They have, then, none of the properties belonging to nouns ; but 
sometimes they are, however, used as nouns, taking the article in 
either number, but not in either gender ; as in the following expres- 
sions : 

The front of the house. Le devant de la maison. 

To start first. Prendre les devants. 

The back part of the house. Le derriere de la maison. 

The inside of the palace. Le dedans du palais. 

The outer part of the city. Les dehors de la ville, &c. 

It would be a great perfection in a language, if prepositions should 
express but one relation between persons or things ; the style would 
be clearer; but it happens, too often, that the same preposition ex- 
presses not only different relations, but relations which are entirely 
opposite ; for instance, in these sentences, 

Approach the fire ; stand back from Approchez-vous du feu ; eloignez-vom 
the fire, du feu, 

the preposition de, of, expresses, in the first part of the phrase, a rela- 
tion of approximation, and, in the last, a relation of removal. 



- CLASSIFICATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

844. We may divide prepositions into three different classes : 

1st. According to the formation of the word itself. 

2d. According to the signification of the word. 

3d. According to the object which it governs. 

The first class of prepositions are either simple or compound. 

1st. The prepositions which are called simple are expressed by 
one word only; as, a, to; de, of; pour, for; sans, without; avec, 
with, &c. 

The prepositions which are called compound are expressed by the 
union of several words ; as, vis-a-vis de, opposite ; d, la reserve de, 
except ; H cote de, by the side of, &c. 

2d. The prepositions, in regard to their signification, are divided 
into as many classes as there are relations among words. 

3d. The prepositions, in regard to their object, are divided into 
three classes ; 

1. Those which do not require the use of another preposition before 
the noun governed by them. 

2. Those which govern the preposition of. 

3. Those which govern the preposition to. 



PREPOSITION. 



427 



Examples of the first class : 

Before you. 
After him. 
Behind them. 

Examples of the second class : 

Far from Paris. 
Near Bath. 
Out of London. 

Examples of the third class : 

As far as Canterbury. 
As to myself. 
On vour account. 



Avant vous. 
Apres lui. 
Derriere eux, &c. 



Loin de Paris. 
Pres de Bath. 
Hors de Londres. 



Jusqu'd Cantorbery. 

Quant d moi. 

Par rapport d vous. 



Before entering into the examination of the prepositions in regard 
to their signification, we shall give a list of all our prepositions accord- 
ing to the nature of their object. 



A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR OBJECT. 

845. As we have already said, some prepositions are followed by 
the noun which they govern without the help of any other prepo- 
sition ; some require the preposition de, of; four in number, only, 
require the preposition <i, to. 

The following prepositions govern their object without the help of 
another : 



A, 
De, 

Des, 

Avant, 

Devant, 

Derriere, 

Avec, 

Attendu, 

Vu, 

Chez, 

Apres, 

Depuis, 

Dans, 

En, 

Durant, 

Pendant, 

Entre, 

Parmi, 

Environ 

Vers, 

Envers, 

Selon, 

Suivant, 

Comme, 

Contre, 



to. 


Touchant, 


concerning. 


of. 


Concernant, 


concerning. 


6ince, from. 


A travers, 


through. 


before. 


Sans, 


without. 


before. 


Pour, 


for. 


behind. 


Moyennant, 


with the help of. 


with. 


Nonobstant, 


notwithstanding. 


considering. 


Excepte, 


except. 


considering. 


Hormis, 


except. 


at one's house. 


Hors, 


save. 


after. 


Malgre, 


in spite of. 


since. 


Outre, 


besides. 


in. 


Par, 


by. 


in. 


Sur, 


upon, on. 


during. 


Sous, 


under. 


whilst. 


Dessus, 


upon 


between. 


Dessous, 


under. 


among. 


De-dessus, 


from upon. 


about. 


De-dessous, 


from under. 


towards. 


Par-dessus, 


over. 


towards. 


Par-dessous, 


under. 


according to. 


Par de ca, 


this side. 


according to. 


Par de la, 


that side. 


as. 


Sauf, 


saving. 



against. 



42S 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



846. The following prepositions govern de, of, before their object 



Aupres, 


near. 


Au-derriere, 


behind. 


Pies, 


near. 


Autour, 


around. 


Proche, 


near. 


Aux environs de, 


about. 


Faute, 


for want of. 


A l'exclusion, 


one being excluded. 


Hors, 


out. 


Au milieu, 


in the midst. 


Loin, 


far. 


Au niveau, 


level with. 


Le long, 


along. 


A cote, 


by the side. 


Ensuite, 


after. 


Aux depens, 


at the expense of. 


A cause, 


on account. 


A la mode, 


after the fashion of. 


A l'egard, 


with respect to. 


A force, 


by- 


A l'insu, 


{ without one's know- 


Aux prix, 
A raison, 


tor. 

at the rate. 


A l'exception, 


< with the exception 
I of. 


; Vis-a-vis, 
A l'opposite, 


towards, opposite. 
in opposition to. 


A moins, 


for less than. 


Au travers, 


through. 


A la reserve, 


with the exception. 


Au lieu, 


instead. 


A couvert, 


secure from. 


Au moyen, 


by means. 


A l'abii, 


sheltered from. 


Au peril, 


at the risk. 


Au de-ca, 


this side of. 


A fleur, 


even with. 


Au de-la, 


beyond. 


A rez, 


level to the ground. 


Au-dessus, 


above. 


A la faveur, 


by the means of. 


Au-dessous, 


below. 


En depit, 


in spite of. 


Au-devant, 


before. 







Most of these prepositions are composed of a preposition joined to a 
noun ; and this is the reason why they require the preposition of 
between the two nouns, which could not follow each other without it. 

847. The prepositions governing &, to, before their object are the 
following : 



Jusque, 
Par rapport, 



until. 

as regards 



Quant, 
Sauf, 



without prejudice to. 



The last one, sauf, is sometimes followed by to, sometimes not ; for 

we say : 

Saving your opinion. Sauf votre opinion. 

He has paid the debt, without prejudice II a paye la dette, sauf a lui a recourir 
to his claim against you. contre vous. 



Or PREPOSITIONS CONSIDERED IN REGARD TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 

848. The relations which are established by prepositions among 
persons and things are so numerous and so diverse, that it would be 
nearly impossible to establish an accurate distinction among them all ; 
therefore, we shall only consider those which are the more distinct, so 
as not to create confusion in the mind of the learner. 



PREPOSITION. 429 

We will, then, reduce the number of relations to eight ; as, 

1st. Relations of place. 

2d. " order, or arrangement. 

3d. " union, connection. 

4th. " separation. 

5th. " opposition. 

6th. That which marks the end which the mind has in view 

7th. That which marks the cause. 

8th. That which marks the means. 

OF PREPOSITIONS HAVING REFERENCE TO PLACE. 

849. 1st. The prepositions which have reference to place are the 
following : 

Chez, at one's house : 

He is at home. II est chez lui. 

Every one ought to be master in his Chacim doit etre le maitre chez soi. 
own house. 

Dans, in : 

He is in the house. II est dans la maison. 

He takes a walk in the garden. II se promene dans le jardin. 

Dcvant, before : 

Your image is always before my eyes. Votre image est toujoius dcvant mes 

yeux. 

Derriere, behind : 

An ambitious man never looks behind. L'ambitieux ne regarde jamais derriere 

lui. 

Parmi, among : 
How many fools there are among men ! Que de fous parmi les hommes ! 

Sous, under : 
Fish live under the water. Le poisson vit sous l'ean. 

Sur, upon : 

Must birds live upon trees. La plupart des oiseaux vivent sur les 

arbres. 

Vers, towards : 

He takes his course towards the east. II se dirige vers I'est. 

The magnet points to the north. L'aimant tourne vers le nord. 



430 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF PREPOSITIONS DENOTING ORDER AND ARRANGEMENT. 

850. 2d. Those which mark order, arrangement, are the following : 

Avant, before : 

The news arrived before the messen- La nouvelle est amvee avant le messa- 
ger. ger. 

Apres, after : 

Vain people do not like to walk behind. Les personnes vaines n'aiment pas a 

marcher apres les autres. 

Entre, between : 

There is a treaty of peace between the II y a un traite de paix entre les diffe- 
different powers of Europe. rentes puissances de l'Europe. 

Depuis, since, from : 

Since the time of the creation men have Depuis la creation l'homme ne s'est 
not improved much. pas ameliore. 

Des, from, since : 

This river is navigable from its source. Cette riviere est navigable des sa 

source. 



OF PREPOSITIONS DENOTING UNION AND CONNECTION. 

851. 3d. Those which mark union, connection, are the following : 

Avec, with : 
We must know those with whom we II faut connaitre ceux avec qui l'on 



Durant, during : 

During wars, people, arts, commerce Durant la guerre, les peuples, les arts, 

and sciences, suffer equally. le commerce, et les sciences, souffrent 

egalement. 

Outre, besides : 

In order to succeed in the world, we Pour reussir dans le monde, il faut, 

must have much complaisance, be- outre des qualites aimables, un grand 

sides amiable qualities. fond de complaisance. 

Pendant, during : 

Pleasures are more lively and varied Les plaisirs sont plus varies et plus 

during the winter; but are they better vifs pendant l'hiver; mais valent-ils 

than those we enjoy in the country mieux que ceux dont nous jouissons 

during the summer 1 k la campagne pendant l'ete. 



PREPOSITION. 431 

Suivant, according to : 

I will decide according to circumstan- Je me deciderai suivant les circon- 
ces. stances. 

Selon, according to : 

A wise man acts according to the prin- L'homrae sage agit selon les maximes 
ciples of reason. de la raison. 

OF PREPOSITIONS INDICATING SEPARATION. 

852. 4th. Those which indicate separation are the following : 
Sans, without : 

A woman may be amiable without Une femme peut etre aimable sans 
beauty. beaute. 

Hors, except : 

All is lost except honor. Tout est perdu hors l'honneur. 

Excepte, besides : 

Besides or except five or six philoso- Excepte cinq ou six philosophes reelle- 
phers truly enlightened, all the pagans ment eclaires, tous les payens etaient 
were plunged in ignorance. plonges dans l'ignorance. 

Hormis, except : 

All have come home except my brother. Touts sont rentres hormis mon fr^re. 

OF PREPOSITIONS INDICATING OPPOSITION. 

853. 5th. Those which indicate opposition are the following : 

Contre, against : 

The people are leagued against the best Les peuples sont ligues contre le meilleur 
of kings. des rois. 

Malgre , in spite : 

He has done that in spite of me. II a fait cela malgre moi. 

Nonobstant, notwithstanding : 

He has persevered in his views, not- II a persiste dans ses vues, nonobstant 
withstanding all that has been said tout ce qu'on a pu lui en dire. (Ob- 
about it. solete.) 



432 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

OF PREPOSITIONS INDICATING THK END WHICH THE MIND HAS IN VIEW,. 

854. 6th. Those which indicate the end are the following : 

Envers, towards : 

It is well to be charitable towards the II est bien d'etre charitable envers les 
poor. pauvres. 

Touchant, about : 

He wrote me about this affair. II m'a ecrit touchant cette affaire. 

Pour, for : 

Formerly men sacrificed themselves for Autrefois l'homme se sacrifiait pour la 

their country, they toiled for glory; patrie, il travaillait pour la gloire ; de 

in our days they work only for their nos jours il ne fait rien que pour ses 

interests and pleasures. interets etpour ses plaisirs. 



OF PREPOSITIONS INDICATING THE CAUSE AND MEANS WHICH THE MIND HAS 
IN VIEW. 

855. 7th and 8th. Those which indicate the cause and means are 
the following : 
Par, by : 

He has succeeded by his prayers. II a reussi par ses prie'res. 

Moyennant, by means of : 

I hope to succeed by means of your J'espere reussir moyennant votre as- 
assistance. sistance. (Obsolete.) 

Attendu, considering, on account : 

The messenger has not been able to Le courier n'a pu partir attendu les 
sail, on account of head winds. vents contraires. 



OF THE PREPOSITIONS DE, OF, A, TO, AND EN, IN. 

856. The three prepositions, tt, to, de, of, en, in, are employed in 
so many different ways, that we cannot dispense with speaking of 
them at some length. 

A, to, indicates principally a relation of attribution ; as in, 

This book is mine. Ce livre est d moi. 

I told my mind to my friend. J'ai dit ma pensee d mon ami. 

Who owns this garden *? A qui ce jardin appartient-il 1 



PREPOSITION. 433 

But this preposition indicates, also, 

1st. Place: 
I live in Versailles. Je demeure d Versailles. 

2d. The End: 
I am going into the country. Je vais d la campagne. 

3d. Order: 
They go two by two. lis vont deux d deux. 

4th. State- 
He feels at ease. II est d son aise. 

5th. Quality: 

There is no gold twenty-four carats II n'y a pas d'or d vingt-quatre carats 
fine. 

Sometimes this preposition is merely expletive, and hence forms a 
a number of Gallicisms ; as in, 

Let us see who shall have it. Voyons a qui 1'aura. 

This preposition is sometimes used for selon, according to ; as in, 
This is not according to his taste. Ceci n'est pas d son gout. 

Sometimes instead of pour, for ; as in, 
I take you as a witness. Je vous prends d temoin. 

Sometimes instead of avec, with ; as in, 
They fought with swords. II se sont battus d l'ep&e. 

Sometimes instead of sur, upon, on ; as in, 

As soon as he had put his foot on Aussitot qu'il eut mis pied d terre. 
land. 

Sometimes instead of jusqu'u, until ; as in, 

Until we see each other again. Au revoir, (which means, jusqu'au re- 

voir.) 

857. De, of, indicates principally a relation of extraction, that 
is to say, that from which a thing- is extracted, whence it comes, 
37 



434 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



or takes its name. This is the reason why we say, with de, 
of, 

A marble table. Une table de marbre. 

A silver dish. Un plat d'argent. 

A bridge made out of bricks and Un pont de brique et de terre. 
stones. 



But it indicates, also, 

1st. Property : 
The book of Peter. 

2d. Quality: 
This man has a lion's courage. 

3d. Place: 



To go out of France. 
To come from Italy. 

4th. Situation : 

To die of hunger. 
To jump with joy. 

5th. Cause, Means : 

To live on fruit. 



Le livre de Pierre. 



Get homme a un courage de lion. 



Sortir de France. 
Venir <2'Italie. 



Mourir de faim. 
Sauter de joie- 



Vivre de fruits. 






This preposition is used in many other cases, and serves to con- 
struct a great number of idiomatical and adverbial expressions ; as, 
anew, de nouveau; deliberately, de propos delibere, &c. 

858. En, in, indicates also many relations of a different nature ; 
as in, 



1st. Place : 

To live in America. 
To go to France. 

2d. State: 



/ivre en Amerique. 
Aller en France. 



To be in good health. 
To be at peace, at war. 
To be with a night-gown on. 

3d. Cause : 

To do a thing by hatred to another: 



Etre en bonne sant6. 
Etre en paix, en guerre, 
Etre en robe de chambre. 



Faire une chose en haine d'un autre- 



PREPOSITION. 435 

859. En, dans, in, have a very similar signification, but dans marks 
a sense fixed and determinate : as in, 

Politeness reigns more despotically in La politesse regne plus despotiquement 
the capital than it does in the prov- dans la capitale que dans les prov- 
inces, inces. 

En, on the contrary, indicates a sense vague and indeterminate; 
as in, 

To live in the country. Vivre en province. 

But if we specify what province, then dans takes its place ; as in, 

To live in the province of York. Vivre dans la province d'York. 

It is for the same reason that, although we say, indefinitely, 

To give one's self to be a spectacle for Se donner en spectacle aux autres, 
others, 

we cannot use en if spectacle be qualified by an adjective, destroying 
the vagueness of the expression ; as in, 

Se donner en spectacle funeste. 

This sentence is not grammatical, although it is found in Racine. 

860. A and en, to and in, give an entirely different meaning to 
sentences otherwise composed of the same words ; the following, for 

instance, 

My master is in town, Mon maitre est a la ville, 

signifies that my master lives in town now, and not in the country; 
but the following, 

Mon maitre est en ville, 

signifies that my master is temporarily in town, although he lives in 
in the country. We say, also : 

The army has begun the campaign, L'armee est entree en campagne, 

meaning that war has been commenced ; but we say : 

My master has gone into the country ; Mon maitre est alle a la campagne ; 

meining that my master has left the city. 

Respecting these modes of expression, usage must be consulted ; 
there is no sure indication to guide a foreigner, and time and practice 



436 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



are the best teachers which he may hope to find. How can he dis- 
tinguish, for instance, that if he wishes to express that he lives in 
Paris, he must say : I live in Paris, je demeure & Paris, but if he 
speaks of any other thing but his residence, he must use dans instead 
of & ; as in, 

There are more than a million of souls II y a plus d'un million d'ames dans 
in Paris. Paris. 

861. En is sometimes joined to verbs, and entirely changes their 
signification. We shall give some examples : 

1st. 

If this business don't succeed, I will lay Si cette affaire ne reussit pas, je m'en 
the blame on you. prendrai a vous. 

2d. 

They had gone so far that they had to On en etait venu si avant, qu'il fallai< 
conquer or die. vaincre ou mourir. 

3d. 

In presenting him with this present, he En lui faisant ce present, il assura a 
assured his friend that he would not son ami qu'il n'en resterait pas la, or 
stop there. qu'il ne s'en tiendrait pas la, or qu'il 

n'en demeurerait pas Id. 

1st. 

People who know that they are drown- Les gens qui se noient se prennent a 
ing grasp at anything they find at tout ce qu'ils trouvent a leur portee. 
hand. 

2d. 

They had come as far as the woods on lis itaient venus jupqu'au bois qui 
the side of the main road. horde la grande route. 



He gets hold of the rope, of the II se tient a la corde, aux branches, 

branches, &c. &c. 

He lives there. II demeure la. 



OF THE DIFFERENCE EXISTING BETWEEN ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 

862. We have already said, that prepositions always have an 
object expressed or understood ; this distinguishes them entirely from 



PREPOSITION. 437 

the adverbs, which never have any object from the very nature of 
their signification. These two kinds of words must never be mistaken 
for each other. 

A word is a preposition when it does not represent a complete 
meaning without the assistance of an object, which, although not 
always expressed, is easily supplied by the mind. In the following 
sentences : 

What did they do afterwards 1 Que firent-ils apres? 

He lives far off. II demeure loin. 

Nothing has been done since. II ne s'est rien fait depuis. 

the words apres, loin, and depuis, are prepositions, because the words 
cela, d'ici, from here, and cette chose, this thing, are understood after 
them. 

But, in the following : 

Do not go so far, N'allez pas si avant, 

avant is an adverb, because it cannot be followed by an object. 

863. The same difference exists between autour and alentour, 
around ; autour is a preposition, which has no complete meaning with- 
out an object ; as in, 

AH the courtiers of the court were Tous les grands de la cour etaient au- 
around the throne. tour du trune. 

Whereas alentour is an adverb, which cannot have an object ; as in, 

The king was on his throne, and his Le roi etait sur son trone, et ses fila 
sons were around it. etaient alentour. 

864. The same remark applies to avant and auparavant, before. 
Avant may be followed by an object, which is generally the case ; 



I shall not go before Easter-day. Je ne partirai pas avant Paques. 

Auparavant never has any object, and is an adverb ; as in, 

They say that you will soon go ; but On dit que vous partirez bientot ; mais 
come and see us before you go. venez nous voir auparavant. 

The following sentence : 

Come and see us before you go, Venez nous voir avant de partir, 

was formerly written, 

Venez nous voir avant que de partir. 
37* 



438 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Usage now proscribes this mode of expression. 

Venez nous voir avant que partir, 

would be a fault of language, the conjunction avant que governing 
always the subjunctive mood after it ; it ought to be written : 

Venez nous voir avant que vous partiez. 

Some grammarians pretend that avant, auparavant, and alentour, 
are not adverbs, but mere prepositions, which they attempt to prove 
by the analysis of some phrases ; it may be so in some few cases, but 
they defy analysis in most all instances, so that it is far better to con- 
sider the words as adverbs altogether, so as to create no confusion in 
the mind of the student ; as in the following phrases : 

He has gone far enough into the woods. II est alle assez avant dans le bois. 

He has come when die winter was far II est arrive bien avant dans l'hiver. 

advanced. 

Impress this truth deeply in your mem- Gravez cela bien avant dans votre m6- 

ory. moire. 

I had warned him long before Je l'avais averti longtems auparavant. 

The surrounding echoes. Les echos d 5 alentour. 

865. Foreigners, and too many Frenchmen, often mistake the 
adjective pret, ready, for the preposition pres, near. The adjective 
pret governs the preposition &, to, after it, whereas the preposition 
pres, near, governs de, of; as in, 

I am ready to do what you please Je suis pret a, faire ce qui peut vous 

plaire. 
My work is nearly finished. Mon ouvrage est pres d'etre fini. 

866. The same fault is often made with the two prepositions, & 
travers and au travers, though au travers is followed by de, of ; as in, 

He fought his way through the enemy. II se fit jours au travers des ennemis. 

Whereas h travers has no preposition after it ; as in, 

II se fit jour a travers les ennemis. 

OP PREPOSITIONS HAVING THE PRIVILEGE OP GOVERNING OTHER PREPOSITIONS. 

867. There are prepositions which govern other prepositions, with 
the assistance of an ellipsis. They are the following : 



De, 


of. 


Excepte, 


except 


Pour, 


for. 


Hors, 


« 


Jusque, 


until. 


Par, 


by. 






PREPOSITION. 439 

888. The preposition de, of, governs after it the following : apres, 
after, avec, with, en, in, entre, between, chez, at the house of, and par, 
oy ; as in, 

I speak after good authority. Je parle d'apres une bonne autorite. 

The upper part, the lower part. La partie dfen haut, la partie d'en pas. 

•It is not always easy to distinguish II n'est pas toujours facile de distinguer 

one's friends from one's enemies. ses amis d'avec ses ennemis. 

There are few among them. II y en a peu d'entre eux. 

I am coming from his house. Je viens de chez lui. 

By the king's orders. Depar le roi. 

869. Excepte and hors, except, govern nearly all other preposi- 
tions ; as in, 

I have played against everybody except J'ai joue contre tout le monde excepts 
you. hors, contre vous. 

When hors is used in this acceptation, it never takes of after it; 
as in, 

Except diis, this article. Hors ceci, hors cet article. 

870. Pour, for, governs apres, after, dans, in ; as in, 

That will be for after dinner. Ce sera pour apres diner. 

In a fortnight. Pour dans quinze jours. 

But these phrases are not much used now, and it would better to 
turn them differently. 

871. Jusque may be followed by &, to, par, by, en, dans, in, sur, 
upon, and sous, under ; as in, 

Until to-morrow. Jusqu'd demain. 

As far as the other side of the moun- Jusque par dela les monts. 

tains. 

I followed him even to the roof. Je le su'wis jusque sur le toit. 

We went as far as Italy. Nous allames jusqu'en Italie, &c. 

872. Par, by, may be followed by chez, at the house of, dessus, 
above, dessous, under, devant, before, derriere, behind, and dega, delil, 
this way, that way ; as in, 

Come by my house. Passez par chez moi. 

He is over head and ears in business. II a des affaires par dessus les yeux. 

He is on the other side of the sea. II est par deld les mers. 

You seized me from behind. Vous m'avez pris par derriere, &c. 

These expressions, although grammatical, are far from being ele- 
gant, and ought to be avoided ; it would be better to say : 

Passez chez tnoi. 



440 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

II est au dela des mers. 

II vit en deca des monts, &c. 



REMARKS ON THE PREPOSITIONS YOICI AND VOILA, PENDANT AND DURANT, 
AVANT AND DEVANT. 

873. The prepositions void, voilil, behold, are formed from the 
verb voir, to see, with the addition of the adverbs ci, here, and lil, 
there ; they are the only ones which may be preceded by a personal 
pronoun as their object ; as in, 

Here I am. Me voici. 

There thou art. Te voila. 

Here she is. La voici. 

Here is some. En voici. 

There we are. Nous voila 

874. Pendant and durant, during, whilst, have nearly the same 
meaning, but they are not always used to express the same idea. 
Durant implies continuation; pendant refers only to time, without 
implying necessarily the idea of continuation ; thus, we should say : 

The enemy have quartered during the Les ennemis se sont cantonnes durant 
winter, l'hiver, 

if we mean that they have remained quartered during all the winter ; 
and, 

Les ennemis se sont cantonnes pendant l'hiver, 

if we mean only that they took their quarters during the winter, with- 
out implying that they remained so during the whole time. 

875. Deviant ought to be used only to signify in the presence of, or 
opposite to; as in, 

They have appeared before the judge lis ont paru devant le juge. 
He lives opposite the church. II demeure devant l'eglise. 

And avant ought to be used but to express a relation of priority of 
time and place ; as in, 

He has arrived before me. II est arrive avant moi. 

The article is placed before the noun. L'article est place avant le nom. 

But usage, and even the Academy, make devant refer to place, and 
avant refer to time only, and we must submit to their decision. 



PREPOSITION. 



441 



OP NOUNS GOVERNED BY TWO PREPOSITIONS. 

876. A noun, as we have already said, may be governed by two 
prepositions, provided these two prepositions do not require a different 
object ; thus, we should say, 

He who, according to circumstances, Un homme qui, selon les circonstances, 
writes for or against a party, is a ecrit pour ou contre un parti, est un 
contemptible man. homme meprisable. 

But it would be wrong to say : 

Un homme qui ecrit, selon les circonstances, en faveur ou contre un parti, est, 
&c, 

because pour and contre govern the same object ; and en faveur gov- 
erns de after it, while contre does not. 

We have now to examine the use of prepositions with the article, 
their repetition, and their place. 

OP THE USE OF THE ARTICLE AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 

877. Prepositions being necessarily followed by an object, this 
object is itself accompanied by other words which complete and deter- 
mine its meaning. 

Some of the prepositions require their object to be preceded by the 
article, and some do not ; but there are others which sometimes 
require the article and sometimes not. This admission of the article 
depends on the meaning of the sentence being definite or indefinite. 

878. The following prepositions require the use of the article 
before their object : 



Avant, 


before. 


Devant, 


before. 


Apres, 


after. 


Derriere, 


behind. 


Chez, 


at the house of. 


Duiant, 


during. 


Dans, 


in. 


Pendant, 


" 


Depuis, 


since. 


Envers, vers, 


towards 


Excepte, hors, 


except. 


Hormis, 


except. 


Nonobstant, 


notwithstanding. 


Parmi, 


among. 


Selon, 


according to. 


Sans, 


under 


Suivant, 


M 


Touchant, 


about. 



But when the nouns governed by these prepositions are definite in 
themselves, the article, not being necessary to give them that charac- 
ter, is then suppressed, as before pronouns, proper names of persons, 
cities, &c. ; thus, we say : 



At vour house. 
In Paris. 
Under Henry IV. 



Chez vous. 
Dans Paris. 
Sous Henri IV. 



442 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

879. The preposition en, in, is, except in a very few cases, never 
followed by an article ; as in, 

To be in office. Etre en place. 

To fish in muddy water. Pecher en eau trouble. 

This business lias been discussed before Cette affaire a ete discutee en plein 

the whole parliament. parlement. 

This woman is under her husband's Cette femme est en puissance de man". 

control. 

He is in the way of succeeding. II est en passe de reussir. 

He acts as a king. II agit en roi. 

We say that en, in a very few cases, could be followed by the 
article ; they are the following : 

1st. Before a noun singular beginning with a vowel or an h mute ; 
as in, 

I have done this in the absence of my J'ai fait cela en /'absence de mon p£re. 
father. 

2d. In some old expressions, consecrated by time ; as in, 

In the presence of God. JUn la presence de Dieu. 

This law-suit has been acted upon in Ce proces a ete juge en la grande 
the great hall. chambre. 

But in no case is this preposition ever followed by the article used 
in the plural. 

880. The following prepositions sometimes require, and sometimes 
do not require, the article after them : 



A, 


to. 


Avec, 


with. 


De, 


of. 


Contre, 


against. 


Entre, 


between. 


Outre, 


besides. 


Malgre, 


in spite of. 


Par, 


by. 


Pour, 


for. 


Sans, 


without. 


Sur, 


upon. 






With the 


Article. 


Without the Article. 



To play on the smooth. To be on foot. 

Jouer sur le velours. Etre sur pied. 

St. Paul says, that the wife should be A little politeness does no harm be- 

subordinate to the authority of the tween husband and wife. 

husband. 

St. Paul veut qu'il y ait de la subordi- Un peu de facons ne gate rien entre 

nation entre la femme et le mari. mari et femme. 

Without the passions where would be To live without the passions, is to live 

the merit. without pleasure or pain. 

Sans les passions ou serait le merite. Vivre sans passions, c'est vivre sans 

plaisirs et sans peines. 

This bundle has come by the messen- He goes only by fits and starts. 

ger. 

Ce paquet est arrive par le messager. II ne va que par sauts et par bonds. 






PREPOSITION. 443 



OP THE REPETITION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

881. The prepositions, il, de, en, to, of, in, are invariably repeated 
before each noun ; as in, 

He owed his life to the clemency and II dut la vie a la clemence etc la mag- 

the magnanimity of die conqueror. nanimite du vainqueur. 

A true patriot is happy to serve his Un homme devoue a son pays est heu- 

country, and to contribute to its veux de le servir et de coutribuer a 

glory. sa gloire. 

The same prejudices are found in Eu- Les memes prejuges existent en Eu- 
rope, Asia, Africa, and even Amer- rope, en Asie, en Afrique, et en 
ica. Amerique. 

882. Other prepositions, and principally those of one syllable, are 
repeated when their objects have no similarity in their signification ; 
as in, 

In peace and in war. Dans la paix et dans la guerre. 

By strength and skill. Par la force et par Vadresse. 

With courage aud inhumanity. Avec courage et avec inhumanity. 

On the contrary, they are not repeated when their objects are 
synonymous, or nearly so ; as in, 

In effeminacy and idleness. Dans la mollesse et l'oisivete. 

By force and violence. Par la force et la violence. 

With courage and intrepidity. Avec courage et intripidite. 

Through dangers and obstacles. A travers les dangers et les obstacles. 

However, this rule is not absolute except in reference to the prepo- 
sitions il, de, and en; taste, elegance, and style should always be con- 
sulted. 



OF THE PLACE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

883. Prepositions have no fixed place in the French language ; 
when a word is governed by one of them, it is placed sometimes at 
the beginning, sometimes at the end, sometimes, again, in the middle. 
of the sentence ; this word generally expresses a modification of 
another word ; it ought, then, to be placed so' as to show clearly the 
relation which the mind has in view, and, provided the idea is 
expressed clearly, it matters not where the preposition is placed ; the 
ear is the only guide, and must be consulted with care. 

884. Rule, Prepositions which, with their object, express a cir- 



444 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

cumstance of another word, ought, if possible, to be placed near the 
word which they thus modify ; as in, 

We see many people who, although On voit bien des gens qui, avec 'beau* 

very witty, commit great faults. coup d'esprit, commettent de grandes 

fautes. 

I have sent to the post-office the letters J'ai envoye d la poste les lettres que 

which you have written. vous avez ecrites. 

Do you think you can, by kindness, re- Pensez-vous pouvoir ramener, par la 

claim those misguided minds 1 doucer, ces esprits egares 1 

If, in these sentences, we change the place of the prepositions, 
there will be an ambiguity, because we may say, with another mean- 
ing : 

Commettre des fautes avec esprit. 
Ecrire des lettres a la poste. 
Des esprits egares par la douceur. 

Therefore, when a preposition is used to modify, with its object, a 
preceding word, clearness must be consulted first, then the ear, and, 
above all, ambiguity ought to be avoided. 



885. Remarks. In the first edition of our grammar, impressed with 
the difficulty which the proper use of prepositions presents to for- 
eigners, we had devoted forty or fifty pages to illustrations showing 
how they should be used in a great number of cases which very 
often embarrass French people themselves. Those illustrations were 
certainly very useful : but they increased the size and price of the book, 
without offering a complete solution of this great difficulty, which, in 
fact, belongs to a dictionary rather than to a grammar. They have 
been suppressed in this edition ; and we will only repeat here the 
advice we have so often given to those who have been under our care, 
which is, to get the best and most complete dictionary they can find, 
as the most useful assistant they can have in their study. It would 
be well, perhaps, for us to mention the French edition of Flemming 
and Tibbins, which is certainly the best book of the kind that has 
ever been published in any country ; there the student will find all the 
assistance which he so much needs, and without which he walks 
blindfolded in so intricate a labyrinth as the study of our language. 



PKEPOSITION. 445 



QUESTIONS. 

843. What is the meaning of the word preposition ? For what purpose are 
prepositions used 1 

843. Are prepositions declinable or indeclinable 1 Can they ever be used 
without being followed by an object 1 

843. Are not prepositions sometimes used like nouns 1 Do they then take 
either number and gender 1 

843. By what should they be preceded in order to be used like nouns 1 

843. Do prepositions always express the same relation 1 

844. Into how many classes can prepositions be divided 1 Which are they 1 
844. What is understood by either simple or compound prepositions '1 

844. If prepositions should be classified according to their signification, into 
how many classes should they be divided 1 

844. Into how many classes are prepositions divided in reference to their 
object 1 (The pupils should state here what is the distinct character of each of 
these three classes.) 

845, 846. (The pupils should, if not learn those two lists by heart, at least 
try to remember those prepositions contained in them which are most generally 
used.) 

845, 846. Why are most of the prepositions contained in the list, 846, fol- 
lowed by the preposition de? 

847. What are the four prepositions which govern the preposition d after 
them 1 

847. Is there not one of these prepositions which can be used without being 
followed by a? Which is it 1 

848. When prepositions are considered in reference to their signification, 
into how many classes are they divided 1 Which are they 1 

848. What are the prepositions contained in the first class 1 What is the 
meaning of each of them 1 (The teacher should ask the same questions for 
each class, as far as paragraph 855 inclusively, and make his pupils learn the 
examples given for each case.) 

856. (The teacher should make his pupils learn the several significations of 
the prepositions d, de, and en, and give an example for each case.) 

859. What is the difference existing between en and dans? 

859. Can en be followed by a noun qualified by an adjective, when this adjec- 
tive is placed after the noun 1 

860. What is the difference between the expressions, etre en ville, and etre a 
la ville ; etre a la campagne, and etre en campagne? 

860. What is the difference between d Paris and dans Paris? 

861. Does not the preposition en change entirely the signification of verbs to 
which it is prefixed 1 (Give the examples.) 

862. What difference is there between an adverb and a preposition 1 

862. Are there not some words which are used either as prepositions or 
adverbs 1 (Give some examples.) 

863. What is the difference between autour and alentour? Which of these 
two words is always used as an adverb 1 

864. (Ask the same question in reference to avant and auparavant.) 
864. Can avant be followed by que de before an infinitive 1 

864. How should a sentence be constructed either with avant que or avant de? 

864. Is not avant sometimes used as an adverb 'i What does it signify then 1 
(Give some examples.) 

864. What is the difference between the words pret and pres? By what 
preposition should either of these words be followed 1 

866. What is the difference between d travers and au travers? 

867. Are there not prepositions which govern others by means of an ellipsis "? 
Which are they 1 

868. What are the prepositions which de can govern 1 

38 



446 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

869. What are the prepositions which excepte and hors can govern ? 

870. What are the prepositions which pour can govern 1 

871. What are the prepositions which jusque can govern 1 

872. What are the prepositions which par can govern 1 

873. From what do the prepositions void and voild originate 1 
873. Can they he preceded by a personal pronoun as their object 1 

873. Is there any other preposition that enjoys the same privilege 1 

874. 875. What is the difference between pendant and durant? avant and 
devant? 

876. Can a noun ever be governed by two prepositions 1 in what case 1 
(Give an example for each case.) 

877. Do not some prepositions require their objects to be preceded by the 
articles, whilst others do not 1 

877. How should it be ascertained whether a noun used as the object of a 
preposition should be preceded by the article or not 1 

875. What are the prepositions which are always followed by the article 
before nouns 1 

878. Is the article still used before proper names or pronouns 1 Why not 1 

879. Is the preposition en generally followed by the article 1 When can the 
preposition en be properly followed by the article 1 

879. Is the preposition en ever followed by the plural article 1 

880. What are the prepositions which are sometimes followed by the article, 
and sometimes not 1 (These rules on the use of the article are a consequence of 
the principles we have expressed when speaking of that part of speech, and their 
application will present no difficulty to those who know, by the sense of a sen- 
tence, how to distinguish whether a noun is used either in a definite or indefinite 
meaning.) 

881. What are the prepositions which should invariably be repeated before 
each word representing the object of those prepositions 1 

882. In what case should the other prepositions be repeated or suppressed 
before their several objects 1 

883. What guide should a student have in order to ascertain where a prepo- 
sition should be placed with its object 1 

883. Should prepositions always be placed in such a manner as not to create 
any ambiguity in the meaning of a sentence 1 

884. What means should a foreigner resort to in order to ascertain what 
preposition he should use 1 What book should he consult for that purpose 1 



OF ADVERBS. 



886. Adverbs are words, invariable by their nature, which accom- 
pany either verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, to modify the idea 
expressed by these words, so as to give more precision to the action, 
the state, the quality, expressed by these verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. 
When we say : 

These children behave wisely, prudent- Ces enfants se conduisent sagement, 
ly, &c, prudemment, &c, 

the words sagement, prudemment, are adverbs ; they modify the action 
expressed by the verb se conduire, to behave ; they express with more 



ADVERB. 447 

precision the manner, the way, in which these children behave. If 
we suppress the adverbs, the idea would be incomplete, vague ; we 
could not know if the children behaved right or wrong, wisely, or 
prudently. 

These words are called adverbs from the two Latin words, ad and 
verbum, near a word, because they modify, restrict, or determine, the 
sense of the word with which they are used. 

887. These words can modify but a quality which is susceptible of 
being increased or diminished ; thus, when we say the adverb modifies 
a verb, we understand that it modifies the quality, the situation, the 
action, expressed by the verb. In this phrase : 

Peter sleeps soundly, Pierre doit profondement, 

the adverb profondtment modifies the situation of being asleep, which 
is expressed by the verb to sleep, which Peter affirms. 

Adverbs are abridged expressions, which represent a preposition with 
its complement; for instance, sagement, wisely, signifies aocc sagesse, 
with wisdom ; thus, any word which may be thus rendered by a 
preposition and a noun, is an adverb. 

888. Adverbs, as well as prepositions, take neither gender nor 
number. These two kinds of words resemble each other, at least in 
appearance ; but they differ in this, that the preposition is always 
followed by an object, expressed or understood, whilst the adverb has 
no object. 



OF THE DIFFERENCE EXISTING BETWEEN AN ADVERB AND A PREPOSITION. 

889. The adverb has a complete sense of itself, whereas the prepo- 
sition has no signification without its object. 
When I say : 

He has behaved with, by, without, &c, II s'est conduit avec, par, sans, &c, 

the mind is waiting for something else, which is the complement of 
this vague expression ; but, when I say: 

He has behaved prudently, II s'est conduit prudemment, 

the mind is satisfied, the idea is complete. 

As, in many cases, the same words are employed as adverbs or 
prepositions, it is only when they express an idea by themselves that 



448 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

we may call them adverbs ; a few examples will illustrate this differ- 
ence : 

Prepositions. Adverbs. 

He has arrived before the others. Do not go so far. 

II est arrive avant les autres. N'allez pas si avant. 

I have looked in vain upon the bed and Look upon the table ; search upon and 

under it. under it. 

J'ai cherche en vain dessus et dessous Voyez sur la table; regardez dessus et 

le lit. dessous. 

This tact took place out of the city. He is out. 

Ce fait s'est passe dehors la ville II est dehors. 

They were running away without look- What is the difference whether we 

ing behind them. place this button before or behind 1 

lis fuyaient sans regarder derriere eux. Qu'importe, que ce bouton sois mis 

devant ou derriere. 

There are grammarians who object to the words in the right-hand 
column being called adverbs ; they look upon them as prepositions used 
elliptically ; they may be right, but that is of no importance, since we 
treat here only of their form ; the Academy, in this case, calls them 
adverbs, and we will follow its example. 



OF ADJECTIVES PERFORMING THE FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS. 

890. We have said, that, in French, words often change their 
nature ; the adverbs give us some examples to prove this fact. 

Some adjectives become adverbs when, having no antecedent, no 
noun to correspond with them, they are joined to a verb only to qualify 
it, or express a circumstance of its signification ; as, 

He smells good. II sent bon. 

He sings correctly, false. II chante juste, faux. 

She is fainting. Elle se trouve mal. 

They cannot see clear. lis ne voient pas clair. 

She smells bad. Elle sent mauvais. 

He stops short. II reste court. 

These words, bon, juste, faux, mal, clair, mauvais, and court, are 
real adverbs in these sentences. 



OF ADVERBS PERFORMING THE FUNCTIONS OF NOUNS. 

891. There are also adverbs which, on some occasions, become 
real nouns, taking the article and the numbers ; as devant, fore part ; 
derriere, back part ; dessus, the top ; dessous, the under part ; dedans, 
the inside ; dehors, the outside. Thus, we say : 

The outside of the door. Le devant de la porte. 

To take the lead. Prendre les devanis. 



ADVERB. 



449 



To be independent of one's business. 
To be beaten in a fight. 
The inside, the back part, of a house. 
The outer part of the city. 



Etre au dessus de ses affaires. 
Avoir le dessous dans une affaire. 
Le dedans, le derritre, d'une maison. 
Les dehors de la ville. 



OF A FEW ADVERES WHICH, LIKE . PREPOSITIONS, ARE SOMETIMES FOLLOWED 
BY AX OBJECT. 

892. Although we have said that adverbs are never followed by an 
object, we ought to except the few following, which express manner : 
as, depend amment, dependency ; indtpendamment , independently ; 
differemment, differently ; which govern the preposition dc, of; and 
com- enablement, conveniently; conformement, conformably; prefera- 
bkmcnt, preferably; and relativernent, relatively ; which may be fol- 
lowed by either of the prepositions a or de; as in, 

Kings ought to act differently from Les rois doivent agir differemment da 

other individuals. autres homines. 

It is on your account. C'est relativernent a vous. 

The reason for this rule is, that usage has given to these adverbs 
the same prepositions which are governed by their adjectives. 



OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF ADVERBS. 

893. We shall divide the adverbs, according to their signification, 
into the following different classes : 

1st. Adverbs of negation. 



2d. 


" of affirmation. 


3d. 


" of doubt. 


4th. 


" of manner. 


5th. 


" of order or rank. 


6th. 


" of place. 


7th. 


" of distance. 


8th. 


" of time. 


9th. 


" of quantity. 


10th. 


" of comparison. 


We will, in order to establish clearness in this classification, divide 


these ten different sorts 


of adverbs into three large classes : 


The first will include 


the adverbs of negation, affirmation, and doubt. 


The second will include adverbs of manner. 


The third, all the rest. 


3S* 





450 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

We range among the adverbs the words which express affirmation, 
negation, or doubt, which, by many grammarians, are placed among 
the conjunctions, and by others are called particles, a word which 
signifies nothing. We think that names have no importance, pro- 
vided we understand plainly their usage and signification. 



OF THE ADVERBS OF THE FIRST CLASS, THAT IS TO SAY, EXPRESSING EITHER 
AFFIRMATION, DOUBT, OR NEGATION. 

894. The adverbs of affirmation are the following : certes, certainly ; 
oui, yes; volontiers, willingly; soit, let it be so, &c. ; as in, 

Since we must conquer or perish, cer- Puisqu'il faut vaincre ou mourir, certes 

tainly we cannot hesitate. nous n'avons pas a hesiter. 

Yes, such is my name. Oui, tel est mon nom. 

Do you wish it 1 yes, no doubt, let it Le voulez-vous 1 oui, soit, volontiers, 

be so. &c. 

895. We have but one adverb of doubt, it is peut-etre, perhaps ; 



Paris is perhaps the city where people Paris est peut-etre la ville du monde ou 

find the greatest variety of amuse- l'on trouve la plus grande variete 

ments, but at the same time it is dans les plaisirs, mais c'est peut-etre 

perhaps the place where is found the celle ou l'on rencontre le plus de 

greatest amount of misery. misere. 

Some grammarians class among the adverbs of doubt, probablement, 
vraisemblablement, probably ; but we shall put them with the adverbs 
of manner, on account of their termination in ment. 

896. The adverbs of negation are the following : non, no ; ne, ne 
pas, pas, point, ne point, not ; nullement, point du tout, not at all ; 
nulle part, nowhere ; as in, 

Will you have some of that 1 No. En voulez-vous 1 Non. 

Will you not have some of that 1 No. iV'en voulez-vous pas? Non. 

He does not know what to do. He dare II ne sait que faire. II n'ose. 
not. 

We see already, that the negative ne is sometimes used with pas or 
point, sometimes not ; we shall hereafter explain the reason and 
circumstances of this fact. 



OF THE SECOND CLASS OF ADVERBS, INCLUDING THE ADVERBS OF MANNER. 

t 897. The adverbs of manner express how and in what manner things 
are done, facts take place. We have seen that these adverbs are com- 



ADVERB. 451 

posed of an adjective and a preposition ; they have been introduced 
into the language to abridge discourse ; sagement, wisely, is used for 
avec sagesse, with wisdom ; modestement , modestly, foi avec modestie, 
with modesty. The adverbs of this class which are formed from 
adjectives are terminated in ment, and follow in their formation the 
following rules : 

When the adjective which forms the root of the adverb is termi- 
nated with a vowel, the adverb is made by adding ment to the adjec- 
tive ; as in, 

Modestly, modeste-ment. Truly, vrai-ment. 

Sensibly, sense-raent. Gayly, gai-ment. 

Politely, poli-ment. Ingenuously, ingenu-ment. 

We must except, follement, foolishly, nouvellement, newly, molle^ 
ment, softly, bellement, beautifully, which are formed from the femi- 
nine termination. 

898. When the adjective is terminated in the masculine with a con- 
sonant, the adverb is formed by making the adjective feminine and 
adding ment ; as in, 

Greatly, grand, grande-ment. 

Frankly, franc, franche-ment. 

Happily, heureux, heureuse-ment. 

Sweetly, doux, douce-ment. 

Distinctly, distinct, distincte-ment. 

Lou?, long, longue-ment. 

Briefly, brief, briev-ment. 

Freshly, frais, fraiche-ment. 

We must except the adjective gentil, gentle, which makes its 
adverb gentiment. The formation of this adverb arises from the fact, 
that the letter Z is not sounded in the adjective, and the adverb is 
written to suit the ear rather than to conform to the preceding rule. 

899. Adjectives ending in ent, ant, form their adverbs by changing 
ent into emment, and ant into amment ; as in, 

Eloquently, 
Diligently, 
Constantly, 
Obligingly, 

The adjectives lent, slow, and present, present, are the only ones 
of this class which follow the general rule ; as in, 

Slow, lent, lente-ment. 

Present, present, presente-ment. 



eloquent, 


eloquemment. 


diligent, 


diligemment. 


constant, 


constamment. 


obligeant, 


obligeamment. 



452 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



900. There are four adverbs terminating in ment, which are not 
derived from any adjective ; they are, 



How, 

Especially, 



comment, 
notamment. 



Knowingly, 
Nightly, 



sciemment. 
nuitamment. 



901. There are, besides, adverbs of manner, which do not end in 
ment ; such as, 



Vainly, 


en vain. 


Well, 


bien. 


On purpose, 
Badly, 


expres. 
mal. 


Thus, 


ainsi, &c. 



902. The letter e, which precedes ment, in the adverbs of manner, 
is always mute, except in the following, when it takes an acute 
accent; as in, 



Easily, 

Blindly, _ 

Commodiously, 

Communely, 

Conformably, 

Deliberately, 

Immeasurably, 



aisement. 

aveuglement. 

commodement. 

communement. 

conformement. 

deliberement. 

demesurement. 



Desperately, 

Disordinately, 

Determinate!}', 

Impudently, 

Enormously, 

Expressly, 

Figuratively, 



desesperement. 

desordonnement. 

determinement. 

eflfrontement. 

enormement. 

expressement. 

figure ment. 



903. Many adverbs, and principally those expressing manner, admit 
of the three degrees of comparison, and in this respect follow the same 
rule as the adjectives. 

We ought to except the following : 



Totally, 


totalement. 


On purpose, 


expres. 


Extremely, 


extremement. 


How, 


comment. 


Sufficiently, 


suffisamment. 


Incessantly, 


incessamment, 


Thus, 


ainsi. 


Especially, 


notamment. 


Vainly, 


en vain. 


Nightly, 


nuitamment. 



The comparative and superlative are formed in the same manner, 
and with the same words as the adjectives. We say, 



Profoundly, 
As profoundly, 
More " 
Less « 

Very « 

The most " 



profondement. 
aussi profondement. 
plus " 

moins " 

tres " - 

le plus " 



904. Two adverbs alone make their comparative and superlative 
irregularly; they are, bien, well, mal, badly. The first makes its 
comparative mieux, superlative le mievx, the second, pis, superlative 
le pis. 



ADVERB. 



453 



905. The adverbs of manner, whose functions are to modify verbs 
and adjectives, are themselves modified by adverbs of quantity; as in, 



A wise young man says nothing without 
having carefully examined the mean- 
ing of his words, and always behaves 
so prudently that no one can com- 
plain of him. 



Un jeune homme sage ne dit rien sans 
avoir bien soigneusement examine la 
valenr de ses paroles, et se conduit 
toujours si prudemment que personne 
ne peut se plaindre de lui. 



OF THE THIRD CLASS OF ADVERBS. — ADVERBS OF ORDER AND RANK. 

906. The adverbs of order or rank are those which express how 
things are arranged with regard to one another. These adverbs can 
modify only the verbs, and cannot, in any way, be modified by other 
adverbs. They are the following : 



First, 



premierement, 



Secondly, 



secondement, &c, 



which are formed by adding merit to the feminine of the ordinal num- 
bers, and, 



At first, 
After, 
Before, 
Afterwards, then, 



As, 



Do first your translation, secondly, read 
the tenth ode of the first book of 
Horace, and afterwards pass to some 
other kind of amusing reading. 

First the eye admires beauty, then the 
senses feel a desire for it, the heart 
afterwards yields to it. 



d'abord. 

apres. 

devant, avant, auparavant. 

ensuite, &c 



Faites premierement votre version, lisez 
secondement la dixieme ode du pre- 
mier livre d'Horace, et passez en- 
suite a quelqu'autre lecture d'agre- 
ment. 

Les yeux admirent d'abord la beaute, 
ensuite les sens la desirent, le cceur 
s'y livre apres. 



It should be observed that premierement ought not to be used for 
at first, or first, unless these words should begin a series of proposi- 
tions commencing by secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 



REMARKS ON THE ADVERB THEN. 



907. The adverb then has several meanings in English, which, 
being expressed by different words in French, require some explana- 
tion. When then is placed at the head of a proposition implying an 
idea of posteriority or futurity in reference to that which it follows, 



454 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

that adverb signifies afterwards, and is expressed either by ensuite, 
puis, or apres; as in, 

We played whist till ten o'clock ; then Nous jouames au whist jusqu'a dix 
we went to bed. hemes; ensuite, (puis, apres,) nous 

allames nous coucher. 

908. When the adverb then is placed at the head of a proposition 
expressing a fact which implies an idea of actuality, instead of poste- 
riority, that adverb has the meaning of at this moment, and is ex- 
pressed by alors; as in, 

I remonstrated with him on his con- Je lui fis des remontrances sur sa con- 
duct; then he acknowledged his duite; alors il reconnut ses torts, et 
faults, and promised me he would me promit de se mieux conduire a 
behave better in future. l'avenir, 

Alors, in this sentence, signifies at the moment I had done speak- 
ing; this adverb could also have been used in the preceding sentence, 
but then its meaning would have been, at that time {ten o'clock) we 
stopped playing, and afterwards went to bed. 

900. When the adverb then is used to show that the proposition at 
the head of which it is placed is intended to express a consequence, 
an inference in relation to anything said before, it has the meaning of 
therefore, in consequence of, and is either expressed by done or alors, 
but generally by the first of these two words, which has a stronger 
meaning ; as in, 

You see that I am right; you will then Vous voyez que j'ai raison; vous irez 
(therefore, in consequence of that) go done en France, comme je vous le 
to France, as I advise you. conseille. 

910. All these adverbs, ensuite, apres, puis, alors, and done, can 
either be placed before or after the verb ; it is for euphony and taste 
to decide which ; if placed after, in compound tenses, they should be 
placed between the auxiliary and the past participle. 



OF ADVERBS OF PLACE AND DISTANCE. 

911. Adverbs of place and distance are those which are employed 
to express distances and situations of places, in regard to the person 
who speaks, or to the objects which are spoken of. 

The adverbs of place are the following : 

La, y, there 

En haut, on the top 

A I'entour, around, &c 



Ou, 


where. 


lei, 


here. 


Deca, 


this side. 


Dela, 


that side. 


En bas, 


at the base. 


Partout, 


everywhere. 



ADVERB. 



455 



These adverbs have no comparative nor superlative 



Venez ici, come here. Cherchez partout, look everywhere, &c 

Allez la, go there. 

912. The adverbs of distance are : 

Pr£s, near. Loin, far. Proche, near, &c. 

These adverbs take the degrees of comparison ; thus we say, 

Come nearer. Venez plus pres. 

Go farther. Allez plus loin. 

We must be neither too near nor too II ne faut etre ni troppres ni trap loin. 
far. 

Pres and loin may either be preceded or followed by the preposition 
de, of; but in the latter case they lose their character of adverbs, and 
become prepositions. 

Near, he amuses us ; at a distance, he De pres il nous amuse, et de loin nous 

attracts us. invite. 

Near you, everything pleases me; far Pres de vous tout me plait, loin de vous 

from you, everything makes me sor- tout m'attriste. 

rowful. 

In the first sentence, pres and loin, preceded by de, keep their 
nature of adverbs ; but in the second, being followed by it, they 
become prepositions. 

OF ADVERBS OP TIME. 

913. Adverbs of time are those which express some relation of 
time ; they are of two different kinds. 

Some designate time in a determinate manner. 
They are, for the present time : 

Maintenant, now. A present, at present. 

Presentement, presently. Actuellement, actually, &c. 

For the past, they are : 

Hier, yesterday. Autrefois, formerly, &c. 

Avant hier, day before yesterday. 

For the future, they are : 

Demain, to-morrow. Bientot, soon. 

Desormais, hereafter. A l'avenir, in the future, &c. 



456 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



914. The others designate time only in a vague and indeterminate 

manner ; they are : 



late, 
usually, 
early, &c. 



915. Among these adverbs, some take the degrees of comparison; 

as in, 



Souvent, 


often. 


Tard, 


Quelquefois, 


sometimes. 


D'ordinaire, 


Tot, 


soon. 


Matin, 



Come more or less often. 

Go there earlier. 

Come sooner, as soon as possible. 



Venez plus ou moins souvent. 

Allez y plus matin. 

Venez moins tard, le plutct possible. 



Jamais, never, and toujours, always, are sometimes preceded, the 
former by the preposition &, the latter by the preposition pour, for; 
as in, 



Be happy forever. 



Soyez heureux d jamais, or pour tou- 
jours. 



OF ADVERBS OF QUANTITY. 



916. Adverbs of quantity are those which serve to designate the 
quantity of things, or their value, or their comparison ; as in, 



Assez, 


enough. 


Peu, 


few, little. 


Au moins, 


at least. 


Plus, 


more. 


Au plus, 


at the most. 


Presque, 


nearly. 


Aussi, 


as. 


Si, 


so. 


Autant, 


as much. 


Tant, 


so much. 


Beaucoup, 


much. 


Tres, 


very. 


Bien, 


many. 


Trop, 


too much. 


Davantage, 


more. 


Tout, 


entirely, although 


Fort, 
Moins, 


very, 
less. 




very, however, &c. 



917. Remark. Plus and davantage, more, are not used indifferently, 
one for the other. Davantage is never followed by de, of, nor by the 
conjunction que, that ; we do not say : 

He is more brilliant than sound in II a davantage de brillant que de so 

mind, lide, 

He trusts more to his own mind than to II se fie davantage d ses lumi^res qu'd 

that of others, celles des autres, 



but, 



II a plus de brillant que de solide. 

II se fie plus a ses lumieres qu'd celles des autres. 



ADVERB. 



457 



Davantage is properly used only at the end of sentences; as in, 

Science is valuable, but virtue is more La science est estimable, mais la vertii 
so. l'est davantage. 

There are many persons who use davantage instead of le plus; it is 
a fault. We ought to say : 

Among all the flowers of a garden, the De toutes les fleurs d'un parterre, la 
rose is that which pleases me die rose est celle qui m° plait le plus 
most. (and not davantage.) 



OF ADVERBS OF COMPARTSOX. 

918. Adverbs of comparison are those which are employed to com- 
pare persons and things together ; among them, the following, 

Aussi, as, Si, so, 

Autant, as much, Tant, so much, 

are most generally followed by the conjunction que. 

919. Having thus shown what the adverbs are, we have now to 
explain how they must be used ; for it is not unimportant whether 
they be placed before or after the words which they modify. 

The nature of the adverb is elliptical ; it is used generally as an 
abbreviation ; it is a sort of proposition by itself, since we find in it, 
not only a separate idea, as we do in the noun, pronoun, article, adjec- 
tive, and preposition, bat an entire and complete sense. It is em- 
ployed, not only to express some circumstance of time and place, but 
also a modification. We may perceive, then, that the adverb must 
never be too far from the adjective, whose extent of signification it 
ought to restrain, or from the verb itself, which it is to modify. 



OF THE PLaCE OF THE ADVERB IN REFERENCE TO THE VERE. 

920. Adverbs, as we have said, modify verbs, adjectives, and even 
other adverbs. Let us see what is their place in regard to these 
words ; and, first, in reference to the verb. 

The adverb is generally placed after the verb in the simple tenses, 
and between the auxiliary and the past participle in the compound ; 
as in, 

The best informed man is generally he L'homme le mieux informe est ordi- 
who diinks die least of himself. nairement celui qui pense le plus 

modestemcnt de lui-meme. 
Eave you ever seen a more tedious Avez-vous jamais vu un plus ennuyeux 
pedant 1 pedant 1 

39 



45S FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

921. Remark. The compound adverbs, or adverbial expressions, as 
well as those which designate time in a relative manner, are always 
placed after the participle ; as in, • 

This is the fashion. C'est a la mode. 

He has acted in accordance with his II a agi consequemment a ses principes, 
principles. or consequemment. 

Time : 

One ruins his health by working late. On se mine la sante a travailler tard. 
One must go to bed and get up early. On doit se coucher de bonne heure et se 

lever matin. 



PLACE OF ADVERBS OF ARRANGEMENT, AS WELL AS THOSE WHICH DESIG- 
NATE TIME IN A FIXED AND DETERMINATE MANNER. 

922. Adverbs of arrangement are placed either before or after the 
verbs, as well as those which express time in a fixed and determinate 
manner ; thus, we may say : 

We must first do our duty, secondly Nous devons premierement faire notre 
seek honest pleasures. devoir, secondement chercher des plai- 

sirs honnetes. 

The weather is fine to-day, it will rain Aujourd'hui il fait beau, demain il 
to-morrow; pleuvra; 

or, 

II fait beau aujourd'hui, il pleuvra demain. 



PLACE OF ADVERBS COMPOSED OF ONE SYLLABLE, WHEN USED WITH A VERB 
IN THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

923. When the verb is in the infinitive mood, the monosyllabic 
adverbs are placed either before or after this infinitive ; thus, we may 
say: 

To sing well. Bien chanter, or chanter bien. 

To speak better. Mieucc parler, or parler mieux. 

We must, in these cases, consult the ear and taste. 



OF ADVERBS WHICH ARE ALWAYS PLACED BEFORE THE VERB. 

924. The following adverbs, when used interrogatively, ought to 
be placed before the verb : comment, how ; oh, where ; pourquoi, why ; 
combien, how much, how many ; quand, when. 

How do you do 1 Comment vouh portez-vous 1 

Where do you go 1 Oii allez-vous .1 



ADVERB. 459 

Why do you not like and respect God 1 Pourquoi n'aimez-vous pas et ne re- 

spectez-vous pas Dieu 1 
Yon do not know when you will die. Vous ne savez pas quand vous mourrez. 
How much have you paid for your Combien avez-vous paye votre inaison 1 

liouse 1 
How many oranges have you bought 1 Combien d'oranges avez-vous achete 1 



PLACE OF ADVERBS IN REFERENCE TO ADJECTIVES. 

925. The adverb is always placed before the adjective which it 
modifies : 

She is a very handsome, very sensible, C'est une femme fort belle, tres sensi- 
and very honest woman. ble, et infi.nim.tnt honnete. 



PLACE OF ADVERBS IN REFERENCE TO OTHER ADVERBS. 

926. When two adverbs are used together, adverbs of quantity are 
always placed before the others, as well as the three following : 
souvent, often ; toujours, always ; jamais, never ; as in, 

So often, very happily, most adroitly, Si souvent, tres heureusement, le plus 

less honestly. adroiternent, moins honnetement. 

They are always together. lis sont toujours ensemble. 

They shall never be closely united. lis ne seront jamais ttroitement unis. 

It is often the case that he arrives sud- C'est souvent soudainement qu'il arrive. 
denly. 

927. However, the adverb souvent, often, may be preceded by an 
adverb of quantity ; as in, 

So often. Si souvent. 

Very often. Tres souvent. 

Too often. Trop souvent. 

Adverbs of quantity are often found in the same sentence, modify- 
ing each other ; but only a long use of the language can indicate, with 
certainty, which of them must be placed first ; the understanding must 
be exercised, and the adverb expressing the idea which is to be modi- 
fied must always be used the last ; as in, 

So little, too little, very little, much Si pen, trop peu, tres or bien peu, beau- 
more, much less, &c. coup plus, beaucoup moins, &c. 

It is clear, that, in the above expressions, the mind refers to these 
adverbs, peu, little, plus, more, moins, less, in a manner which is 
expressed by the modifying adverbs, si, trop, tres, &c, placed before 
them. 



460 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

REMARKS ON ADVERBS OF QUANTITY - . 

928. Adverbs of quantity present a great difficulty to foreigners, 
which consists in ascertaining what part of speech they can modify ; 
but this difficulty will be removed by paying attention to the follow- 
ing remarks. 

Assez, enough, rather. Assez modifies adjectives, past participles 
conjugated either with to have or to be, verbs, nouns, and some other 
adverbs. It precedes the nouns and adjectives, and follows the verbs, 
which it modifies. 

When modifying nouns, assez acts as a noun itself, and is followed 
by the preposition de, of; as in, 

I have bread enough; J'ai assez de pain; 

which signifies : I have a sufficient quantity of bread. 

The adverbs modified by assez are the following : 

1st. All the adverbs of manner which are susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; as, vite, souvent, tot, tard, de bonne 
heure, longtems, a propos, bon matin, grand matin, il terns. 

3d. Some adverbs of place; as, pres, haut, has, en dehors, loin, 
proche. 
v 4th. The following adverbs of quantity : peu cher, bon marche. 

5th. The adverbs of order : avant, deep, far, &c, and en sous 
ordre. 

929. Au moins, du moins, modify verbs only ; they are indifferently 
placed either before or after the words they modify. 

930. Au plus modifies several adverbs, such as, vite, tot, tard, pres, 
loin, haut, bas, and mal, and always precedes them. 

931. Aussi modifies verbs, participles, adjectives, and adverbs 
When it modifies a verb, it is placed after it ; as in, 

They all go to the theatre to-night; we, lis vont tous ce soir au spectacle; 
also, shall go. nous irons aussi. 

Aussi modifies a past participle when it is conjugated with to be, 
etre ; in such a case, as well as when used with an adjective, it is 
always placed before the word which it modifies, provided it expresses 
a comparison of equality, or the adjective or participle is preceded 
by another adverb ; but, when this adverb is not used to form a com- 
parison, and then means also, it should be placed after the adjective 
or past participle ; as in, 

Your sister is as good as she is hand- Votre soRur est aussi bonne qu'elle est 
some. belle. 



ADVERB. 461 

He is as much loved by his comrades II est aussi aime" de ses camarades qu'il 
as he is esteemed by his chiefs. est estime de ses chefs. 

Your sister is not only very handsome, Votre sueur n'est pas seulement tres 
but she is also very good. belle, mais elle est aussi tres bonne. 

Your sister is not only handsome, but Votre soeur n'est pas seulement belle ; 
she is also good. elle est bonne aussi. 

However, if the verb to be was followed by more than one adjective, 
the adverb aussi, meaning also, could be placed before them ; as in, 

Not only is your sister handsome, but Non seulement votre soeur est belle, 
she is also good and charitable. mais elle est aussi bonne et charitable. 

The adverbs modified by aussi are the following : 

1st. All the adverbs of manner which are susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time; such as vite, tot, tard, apropos, sou- 
vent, longtems, de bonne heure, de bon or de grand matin. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as haut, bas, pres, loin, en dehors^ 
proche. 

4th. The following adverbs of quantity : peu, cher, bonmarche. 

932. Autant modifies verbs and nouns ; it is also used with past 
participles conjugated with to have, avoir, in which case it modifies 
the whole compound tense of the verb, but not the participle. 

When autant is used with a noun, it is always followed by the 
preposition de. 

I was formerly very fond of hunting; J'aimais autrefois beaucoup la chasse, 

but I do not like it so much now. mais je ne Yaime pas autant a pre- 
sent. 

I was never so fond of hunting as I am Je n'ai iamais autant aime la chasse 

now. que je 1 aime a present. 

You have not so much courage as your Vous n'avez pas autant de courage que 

brother. votre frere. 

Remark. Although autant is not generally used with adjectives, 
it can, however, be employed with que between two adjectives, to 
express a comparison of equality ; as in, 

She is as beautiful as she is wise. Elle est belle autant que sage. 

933. Bien modifies verbs, participles, adjectives, nouns, and adverbs ; 
when followed by a noun, it takes de and the article the after it. 

Tell your children that I love them Dites a vos enfants que je les aime bien. 

dearly. 

Tell your children that I always loved Dites a vos enfants que je les ai tou- 

them dearly. jours bien aimes. 

I visited the family with which your J'ai vu la famille avec qui votre sceur 

Bister lives ; they love her dearly. demeure ; elle y est bien aimee. 

39* 



462 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Your daughter has grown much; she is Votre fille a beaucotip grandi; elle est 
very beautiful now. bien belle a present. 

Many young gii Is get married without Bien des jeunes filles se marient sans 
knowing either how or why. savoir ni pourquoi ni comment.' 

The adverbs which are qualified by bien are the following : 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; as vlte, tut, tard, a propos, souvent, de 
bonne heure, de bon or de grand matin, longtems, a terns. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as pres, loin, haut, bas, en dehors, 
proche, au dessus, au dessous. 

4th. Some adverbs of quantity ; such as peu, plus, assez, trop, 
davantagc, moins, cher, bon marche. 

5th. Some adverbs of comparison ; such as pis, plus, moins, mieux, 
au contraire. 

6th. The adverbs of order : avant, far, deep, &c, en sous ordre. 

934. Beaucoup modifies verbs, nouns, adjectives when preceded 
either by plus or moins, and adverbs. 

When followed by a noun, beaucoup takes the preposition de before 
that noun ; as in, 

Do you like me 1 Yes, I like you very M'aimez-vous 1 Oui, je vous aime 

much. beaucoup. 

Did you really ever love that woman 1 Avez-vous reellementaimecettefemme' 1 

Yes, I have loved her very much. Oui, je Vai beaucoup aimee. 

The adverb beaucoup, in this sentence, as well as in those where 
the verb is conjugated with to have, modifies the whole verb, and not 
the participle ; therefore, it cannot be used before a participle conju- 
gated with to be, any more than before an adjective, unless either the 
participle or the adjective is preceded by either of the adverbs plus 
or moins ; as in , 

He is much more regarded now than he U est beaucoup plus estime aujourd'hui 

was formerly. qu'il ne l'etait autrefois. 

She is much prettier, but also far from Elle est beaucoup plus jolie, mais aussi 

being as wise as she was formerly. beaucoup moins ralsonnable, qu'elle ne 

l'etait autrefois. 

Have you much money ! No, I have Avez-vous beaucoup d'argent ? Non, 

not much. je n'era ai pas beaucoup. 

The adverbs which are modified by beaucoup are the following : 
trop, plus, moins, and mieux. 

935. Davanlage modifies verbs only ; as in, 

This young lady is very pretty, but your Cette demoiselle est tres jolie, mais 
sister pleases me more. votre sceur me plait davantage. 






ADVERB. 463 

936. Fort modifies verbs, participles, adjectives, adverbs and adver- 
bial expressions ; as in, 

You behave very bad, and I complain Vous vous conduisez tres inal, et je 

much of it. m , en plains fort. 

Miss C*** has been presented at court, Mademoiselle C*** a ete presentee a la 

and has been much admired, for she cour, et elle y a ete fort admiree, car 

was indeed very beautiful that even- elle etait vraiment fort belle ce soir 

iug. la. 

The adverbs which fort modifies are the following : 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time; such as, vite, tard, d, propos, souvent, 
de bonne heure, de bon or grand matin, longtems, d, laisir, & terns. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, pres, loin, haut, bas, en de- 
hors, proche, audessus, audessous. 

4th. The adverbs of order ; avant meaning far, deep, forward; en 
sous ordre. 

5th. Some adverbs of quantity ; such as, peu, cher, bon marche. 

937. Tres modifies only participles, adjectives, and adverbs ; as in, 

The party last night was beautiful, and Le bal d'hier soir etait tres beau, et les 
it was also very well arranged. arrangements en ont ete ires ad- 

mires. 

The adverbs which tres modifies are the following : 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; such as, vite, tard, & propos, souvent, 
de bonne heure, de bon or de grand matin, longtems, & laisir. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, pres, loin, haut, bas, ev de- 
hors, proche. 

4th. The adverbs of order : avant, far, deep, &c. ; en sous ordre. 

5th. The adverbs of quantity which tres modifies are the follow- 
ing : peu, cher, bon marche. 

938. Moms and plus modify verbs, participles, adjectives, nouns, 
and other adverbs ; when preceded by the article the in English, to 
form a comparison, that article is omitted in French, and these two 
adverbs are placed before the verb ; in any other case, they follow 
it ; they precede the participles, adjectives, and adverbs which they 
modify, and when used with a noun, they take the preposition de 
before that noun ; as in, 

The more I study, the less I learn. Plus yitudie, moins yapprends. 

He studies more than you, and neverthe- Tl (Xudie plu3 que vous, et cependant il 
less learns less than you. apprend moins que vous. 



464 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

When you have studied more you will Quand vous aurez plus etudie", vous serez 

be less ignorant. moins ignorant. 

You have more money than I, but I Vous u.xez plus da fortune que moi, mais 

have less cares than you. j'ai moins de soucis que vous. 

The adverbs modified by plus and moins are the following : 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; such as, vite, souvent, lot, (moins is 
never followed by tot,) longtems, d, laisir, a propos, u terns, (moins 
does not modify this adverb,) de bonne heure, (with plus makes de 
meilleure heure,) grand and bon matin. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, prfo, loin, bas, haut, en 
dehors, proche. 

4th. The adverbs of order : avant for deep, en sous ordre. 

5th. The following adverbs of quantity : cher, bon marche, (with 
plus makes malhcur marche.) 

939. Peu modifies verbs, participles, adjectives, nouns, and other 
adverbs ; as in, 

I study but little, thus I do not learn Vetudie peu, aussi je n'apprends pas 

much. grand chose. 

He studied but little, and his teachers II a peu etudie, et il a toujours ete peu 

never thought much of him. aime de ses maitres. 

Peu is not much used with an adjective ; however, we say, very 
properly : 

This lady is not very amiable. Cette femme est peu aimable. 

He is not very rich. II est peu riche. 

I have but a little money, but you can J'ai peu d' argent, mais vous pouvez en 
have it if you want it. disposer si vous en avez besoin. 

The adverbs modified by the adverb peu are the following. 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison . 

2d. Some adverbs of time; such as, vite, souvent. Apropos. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, loin, haut, audessus and audes- 
sous. 

4th. The adverb of order; avant for deep, &c. 

5th. The only adverb of quantity modified by peu is the follow- 
ing : cher. 

940. Presque modifies some verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
adverbs ; as in, 

I formerly hated that man; now I al- Autrefois je ha'issais cethomme; main- 
most love him. tenant, je V aime, presque. 

I was in such a passion against that J'etais si en colere contre *;et homme 

man that I almost killed him. que je Vai presque tue. 



ADVERB. 465 

I went yesterday to see the fire-works, J'ai ete hier voir le feu d'artifice, et 

and there was Mich a crowd that I la foule etait si grande que j'y fus 

was very near being stifled. presque ttouffe. 

You are almost handsome to-day with Vous etes presque belle aujourd'hui avec 

this bonnet on. ce chapeau. 

The adverbs modified by presque are the following : 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; such as, vile, il terns, & propos, it 
Vheure, jamais, toujours. a toute heure, a tout moment, trop tard, trap 
tot. en moins de rien, it point nomme, en un clin d'ozil, en tout temps. 

3d. Some adverbs of place; such as, en haut, en bas, dehors, en 
dehors, jusqu'ici, j usque lil, loin, vis-it-vis, en face, it cote, a terre. 

4th. Some adverbs of order; such as, de suite, ensemble, de front, 
it la fois, it la fin, en sous ordre, en foule, de fond en comble, sens 
s dcssous, de la me me maniere. 

5th. The following adverbs of quantity : autant, plus, it vil prix, 
trop, cher, bon marche, it demi. 

9-11. Si modifies only past participles, adjectives, and adverbs. 

My son is so much beloved and so Mon fils est si airne et si heureux ou 
happy where he is, that he will very il est, qu'il y restera probablement 
likely stay there a year longer. encore ua an. 

The adverbs of quantity which are modified by the adverb si are the 
following : 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; such as the following : vite, souvent, tot, 
tard, longtems, ii propos, & loisir, de bonne heure, grand and bon 
matin. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, pres, lorn, bas, haut, en de- 
hors, proche. 

4th. The adverbs of order ; such as, avant, deep, far ; en sous ordre. 

6th. The following adverbs of quantity : peu, il vil prix, cher, bon 
marche. 

942. Tant modifies verbs, past participles conjugated with to have, 
past participles conjugated with to le, when they express a mere sit- 
uation, nouns and some adverbs. 

I lore music so much that I never miss J'a/me tant la musique que je ne 

a concert. manque jamais un concert. 

I loved «hat child so much that her J'ai tant aime cette enfant que son 

image follows me everywhere. image me suit partout. 

The?e charges were so ofien renewed Ces accusations furent tant repities 

that they were at last looked upon as qu'on finit par les croire fondees. 

well founded. 



466 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Your brother makes so much money Votre fre're gagne tant d'argent qu'il ne 
that he does not know what to do sait qu'en faire 
with it. 

The adverbs modified by tant are the following : 
1st. Some adverbs of manner ; such as, a Vaise, a nu, ct regret, & 
contre-cceur, it convert, a decouvert, en arriere, en avant, u la hote, Sic. 
2d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, en dehors, en dedans. 
3d. The adverbs of comparison : mieux and pis. 

943. Trop modifies verbs, past participles conjugated either with to 
have or to be, adjectives, nouns, and some adverbs. 

You are too fond of hunting. Vons aimez trop la chasse. 

I loved her too much to be able to for- Je Yai trop airnee pour pouvoir 1'oublier. 

get her. 

This tragedy has been too much ad- Cette tragedie a ete trop admiree pour 

mired not to be acted any more. qu'on ne la joue plus. 

She is too handsome not to be loved. Elle est trop belle pour ne pas etre 

aimee. 

You have too much money not to give Vous avez trop d'argent pour n'en pas 

a little to the poor. donner un peu aux pauvres. 

The adverbs which trop modifies are the following : 

1st. All adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; such as, vite, souvent, tot, tard, it 
laisir, a propos, de bonne heure, grand or bon matin. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, par ici, par let, haut, bas, en 
dedans, en dehors, loin, pres, en avant, en arriere. 

4th. The adverbs of order : avant, deep; & la fois, en sous ordre, 
enfoule. 

5th. The following adverbs of quantity : peu, cher, bon marche. 

6th. The adveibs of comparison ; (Xpart, aVecort. 

944. Tout modifies participles conjugated with to be, adjectives, 
nouns, and some adverbs. This adverb, when used either with past 
participles or adjectives, is submitted to some particular rules, which 
have been explained when speaking of tout as an indefinite pronoun. 

When used with nouns, tout precedes them immediately ; it forms 
with them idiomatical expressions, which cannot be very well con- 
veyed into English ; such as, 

My children went yesterday to the Mes enfants ont ete hier au theatre 
theatre for the first time; nothing pour la premiere fois ; ils etaient tout 
could take their attention from the <zil et tout oreille. 
stage. 

This young man is full of courage and Ce jeune homme est tout cceur, tout feu. 
spirit. 



ADVERB. 467 

The adverbs modified by tout are the following : 

1st. Most adverbs of manner susceptible of comparison. 

2d. Some adverbs of time ; such as, a laisoir, a propos, (Tabord. 

3d. Some adverbs of place ; such as, en haul, en has, d, bas, la bas, 
en dehors, aientour, pres, proche, aupres, vis-a-vis, a cute, de cote, au 
dessus. 

4th. Some adverbs of order ; such as, en dernier lieu, de suite, en- 
semble, d, lafois, a la Jin, sens dessus dessous, sens devant derriere. 

5th. Some adverbs of quantity ; such as, autant, au plus, au moins. 

6th. Some adverbs of comparison ; such as, aussi, de meme, comme, 
au contraire. 

FURTHER REMARKS ON ADVERBS OF QUANTITY. 

945. Adverbs of quantity expose foreigners to frequent mistakes, 
on account of the difference existing in the manner in which they are 
used both in French and in English. The following remarks will be 
of great service to them. 

946. Much, and many, beaucoup. 
As much, as many, autant, tant. 

So much, so many, so very much, so very many, autant, tant. 
So much as, assez pour. 

So much the more, d' autant plus; so much the less, d' 'autant moins. 
So much the better, tant mieux, d* autant mieux, (followed by que.) 
So much the worse, tant pis, d'autant plus mal, (followed by que.) 
How much, how many, combien. 
Too much, too many, trop. 
Very much, beaucoup. 
Not much, pas beaucoup.. 

Much is also used idiomatically in many cases, for which the student 
Bhould resort to a good dictionary. 

947. Little, pen, (indicates scarcity, want.) 

A little, un peu, (indicates only a small quantity,) pas beaucoup. 
The little, le peu. (Le peu also signifies the want of a thing.) 

948. Few, peu. 

A few, quelques, (followed by a noun,) quelques uns, (when not 
followed by a noun.) 

949. So, so very, si, aussi, tant, tellement, (adverb of quantity ;) 
80 so, assez bien, comme cela. 

So, (meaning thus, adverb of manner,) ainsi,de cette maniere, de la 
sorte, de meme, comme cela, cela. (See dictionaries.) 



468 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

950. Well, Men ; pretty well, tolerably well, assez Men. 

Very well, tres Men. (This adverb cannot be used in French with 
the verb aimer, to love, or to like ; because, to like very bad being 
nonsense, to like very well is not a rational idea ; we like more or less, 
but we do not like well or badly ; we should, then, say, instead of the 
English expression I like it, or him, very well, I like it, or him, very 
much; very much being then expressed by beaucoup.) 

951. How, comment. (This adverb cannot be used with the verb 
aimer, to love, to like, as it is in English in interrogative sentences. 
The English expression, How do you like? &c, should be changed 
into how do you find? or what do you think? &c, which correspond 
better to the views of the mind than the English meaning, in what 
manner do you like, or what quantity of liking have you, &c.) 

952. More, plus Less, moins. 

Much more, beaucoup plus. Much less, beaucoup moins. 

Some more, any more, encore. Some less, any less, moins. 

No more, plus. No less, pas moins. 

A little more, un peu plus. A little less, un peu moins. 

953. Enough, assez. Not enough, pas assez. 

Quite enough, Men assez, suffisamment. Not quite enough, pas 
iout-a-fait assez, pas suffisamment. 

954. Rather, plutut, as in, 

Is your sister better? No; she is Votre soeur, est-elle mieux % Non; elle 
rather worse. est plutbt plus mal. 

Mieux : 

I would rather die than to do that. J'aimerais mieux mourir que de faire 

cela. 

Un peu : 

How are you to-day 1 I am rather Comment vous trouvez-vous aujour- 
better. d'hui 1 Je me sens un peu mieux. 

To have rather, preferer, aimer mieux. 

955. Quite, tout-a-fait, enlierement, tout, Men. 
Not quite, pas tout- ii-f ait. 

The preceding adverbs are the only ones which present any diffi- 
culty to foreigners, and these few remarks are sufficient to enable them 
to use them properly. 



ADVERB. 469 

OF THE NEGATIVE ADVERB NE. 

956. There is no word in the French language of more difficult 
application than the negative ne; we will adopt on this subject the 
opinions oiBauzee, as Levizac has not hesitated to do the same himself. 

A negation is expressed in French either by the word ne alone, or 
by ne accompanied by pas, point, or any other negative or restrictive 
word ; thus we have to consider the four following questions : 

1st. What is the place of the negative words ? 

2d. When is it that pas ought to be preferred to point, and vice 
versa ? 

3d. When is it that pas and point may be suppressed? 

4th. When is it that pas ox point ought to be suppressed? 

But, before discussing these points, let us remove a wrong im- 
pression which exists among foreigners, and among too many French 
people, that is, that, in the French language, two negations are equal 
to an affirmation ; this fact, although true in Latin, is not true in 
French. 

FIRST QUESTION. WHAT IS THE PLACE OF THE NEGATIVE WORDS? 

957. Ne in all cases is placed before the verb, and precedes all the 
pronouns and adverbs which the construction of the sentence requires 
to be placed before it ; as in, 

You do not say. Vous ne dites pas. 

You do not think so. Vous ne le pensez pas. 

I am going into the country, and I shall Je vais a la campagne, et je n'y mene- 

not carry my daughter there. rai pas ma fille. 

The place of pas or point varies. 

958. When the verb is in the present of the infinitive mood, they 
are sometimes placed before, sometimes after the verb ; the ear must 
be consulted as well as taste ; placed before, the negation has a 
stronger meaning. We say : 

In order not to see. Pour ne voir pas, or pour ne pas voir. 

But the second expression is preferable to the first. 

When the verb is in the imperative mood, pas or point is always 
placed after the verb ; as in , 

Do not play. Ne jouez pas or point. 

Do not hurt me. Ne me faites.pa*- mal. 

40 



470 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



959. In all other moods, and in all tenses of these moods, as well 
as in those of the infinitive, except the present, the tenses are either 
simple or compound ; if simple, the two negations, pas or point, go 
after the verb ; if compound, they are placed between the auxiliary 
and past participle ; as in, 



He does not speak. 
Not speaking. 
He has not spoken. 
Having not spoken. 
Has he not spoken % 



II ne parle pas. 
Ne parlant pas. 
II n'&pas parle. 
JV'ayant pas parle. 
iV'a-l-il pas parle 1 



WHEN IS IT THAT PAS OUGHT TO BE PREFERRED TO POINT, AND VICE VERSA ? 

960. In order to decide upon this question, we must know what is 
the power of these two words ; their use, in most cases, depends 
upon the views of the mind. 

Point denies more strongly than pas. 

Point designates something permanent, stable. 



He reads not, he plays not, 



II ne lit point, il ne joue point, 



signify, that he never reads, he never plays. 

Point, then, designates a habit, conveys an idea of duration. 

Pas, on the contrary, expresses something which is transitory, tern 
porary, accidental. When I say : 



He does not read, he does not play, 



II ne lit pas, il ne joue pas, 



I mean to mention only, that he does not read or play now, at this 
moment ; pas, then, marks the state of the moment. 
Point indicates a negation without reserve ; as in, 



He has no wit. 



II n'a point d'esprit. 



That is to say, he has no mind at all. This phrase is equivalent to 
the expression, He is stupid. 
But, if we use pas, and say : 

II ra'a pas d'esprit, 

we express only that his mind has nothing striking, which is not so 
absolute as the former expression. 

From the foregoing considerations, the Academy concludes, that 

961. Pas is to be preferred to point : 



ADVERB. 



471 



1st. Before si, plus, moins, autant, &c, and other comparative 
expressions ; as in, 

Milton is not less sublime than Homer. Milton n'est pas moins sublime qu'Ho- 

mere. 

2d. Before nouns of number ; as in, 

Not ten years since. II n'y a pas dix ans. 

Point, on the contrary, is the only word which may be used in 
some elliptical phrases, as the following : 

I thought I had an honest man to deal Je croyais avoir affaire a un honnete 
with, but it is not so. homme, mais point. 

And in answer to an interrogation ; as in, 

Shall you go to the theatre to-night 1 Irez-vous au theatre ce soir 1 Point. 
No. 

In these two cases, usage does not admit the employment of pas, 
but it would be better to use the negative adverb non. 

At the end of a sentence, it is more elegant to use point than pas ; 



They laughed at him, and he did not On s'amusait a ses depens, et il ne s'en 
perceive it. apercevait point. 

962. The Academy establishes another distinction between pas and 
point in interrogative sentences. When we say : 

Have you not seen such a person 1 N'avez vous point vu telle personne 1 

we wish to ask only a sample question, which is, whether you have 
not seen such a person ; our mind has nothing else in view. But, if 
we say : 

N'avez vous pas vu telle personne 1 

we wish to express the idea that we think that the individual to whom 
the question is put has, in fact, seen the person, and we only pretend 
to ascertain it. 



WHEN" IS IT THAT WE .MAY WITH ELEG.ANXE AND PROPRIETY SUPPRESS PAS 
OR POINT? 

963. Pas or point may be elegantly suppressed with the verbs cesser, 
to cease, oser, to dare, pouvoir, to be able, savoir, to know, (meaning, 



472 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



with ne, to be ignorant of.) This omission is simply an elegance, but 
we seldom dispense with it. 

He does not cease crying. II ne cesse de pleurer. 

He did not dare to resist him face to U a'osa lui resister en face. 

face. 

He could not succeed in this affair. II ne put reussir dans cette affaire. 

He does not know what he says. U ne sait ce qu'il dit. 

Pas and point are also suppressed in interrogative sentences which 
express a negation or a doubt ; as in, 

Is there a man whom she does not Y a-t-il un homme dont elle ne medise 1 

slander 1 

Have you a friend who is not my friend Avez-vous un ami qui ne soit un des 

also 1 miens 1 



OF THE SEVERAL CASES IN WHICH PAS OR POINT OUGHT TO BE 

SUPPRESSED. 

OF CASES IN WHICH THE NEGATION IS SUFFICIENTLY EXPRESSED BY WORDS 
WHICH RESTRICT THE SIGNIFICATION OF THE VERB IN A MANNER EITHER 
RELATIVE OR ABSOLUTE. 

964. Whenever the extent which we mean to give to the negative 
is sufficiently expressed by words which restrict the signification of 
the verb in a manner either relative or absolute, both pas and point 
should be omitted ; therefore, we say, with a relative restricting 
meaning : 



I seldom go out, 

I shall not go out for three days, 

and, with an absolute meaning : 

I never take any tea, 

I will not see him while I live, 

I do not think of it any more, 

Not one believes in it, 

Do not use any of these stratagems, 

He pleases nobody, 

He loves nobody, 

You admire nothing, 

You value nothing, 

He has remained with nothing, 

I did not think of it at all, 
I do not wish it at all, 



Je ne sors gu£re, 

Je ne sortirai de trois jours, 



Je ne prends jamais de the, 

Je ne le verrai de ma vie, (meaning 

never,) 
Je n'y pense plus, 
Pas un n'y croit, 

N'employez aucun de ces stratagemes, 
II ne plait a personne, 
II n'aime personne, or qui que ce soit, 
Vous n'admirez rien, 
Vous ne prisez quoi que ce soit, 
II ne lui est reste chose quelconque, 

(obsolete.) 
Je n'y pensais nullement, 
Je n'en veux aucunement, &c, 



because, in these sentences, the words jamais, de ma vie, plus, pas 
un, aucun, personne, qui que ce soit, rien, quoi que ce soit, quelconque, 



ADVERB. 473 

nullement, and aucunement, are themselves entirely restrictive and 
negative. 

965. Remark. When, after sentences similar to the preceding, the 
conjunction que or a relative pronoun is followed by a negative phrase, 
pas or point is suppressed ; as in, 

I never commit an excess widiout being Je ne fais jamais d'exces que je n'en 

sick. sois incommode. 

1 did not see a single person yesterday Je ne vis personne hier qui ne vous 

who did not praise you. louat. 

I will make no objection to you but Je ne vous ferai aucune objection, que 

what I can sustain with sufficient je ne l'appuie de bonnes preuves. 

proofs. 



OF CASES IX WHICH THE NEGATION IS ACCOMPANIED BY WORDS EXPRESSING 
THE SMALLEST PARTS OF A WHOLE. 

966. When the verb, preceded by the negative word ne, is followed 
by expressions signifying the smallest parts of a thing considered as a 
whole, without an article, both pas and point are omitted ; thus we 
say : 

He does not see at all. II n'y voit goutte. 

He has not gathered a bit of it. II n'en a cueilli brin. 

He will not taste it at all. II n'en tatera mie. 

He does not say a word. II ne dit mot. 

These four expressions are kept in the language, but they are old 
and but little used, except the first and the last. 

But, if the words expressing the smallest parts of a thing consid- 
ered as a whole are preceded either by a numerical adjective or an 
article, the second negation, pas, is required after the verb : 

He does not say a word which is not II ne dit pas un mot qui ne soit inte- 

interesting. ressant. 

In this speech, there are not three Dans ce discours, il n'y a pas troismots 

words to be corrected. a reprendre. 

There is not a bit of it. II n'y en a pas mi brin. 



OF CASES rN WHICH THE NEGATION IS ACCOMPANIED BY THE CONJUNCTION 
NEITHER, NI. 

967. Both pas and point should be omitted when two negative 
propositions are connected together by the negative conjunction ni ; 
as in, 

I neither love nor respect him. Je ne l'aime ni ne l'estime. 

40* 



474 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

When the negative conjunction ni is repeated in the nominative of 
the verb ; as in, 

Neither gold nor grandeur renders us Ni l'or ni la grandeur ne nous rendent 
happy. heureux. 

When the negative conjunction ni is repeated before the attribute ; 
as in, 

He is neither prudent nor wise. II n'est ni prudent ni sage. 

When the negative conjunction ni is repeated before the object ; 
as in, 

He has neither debts nor lawsuits. II n'a ni dettes ni procds. 

Remark. We may employ the second negation, pas, when ni is not 
repeated, and is separated from the first negation, ne, by a number 
of words, which may prevent the recollection of the negative idea ; 
as in, 

I do not like this vain display of erudi- Je n'aime pas ce vain etaiage d'erudi- 

tion shown without discrimination or tion, prodiguee sans choix et sans 

taste, nor this superabundance of gout, ni ce luxe de mots qui ne 

words which signify nothing. disent rien. 



OF CASES IN WHICH THE SIGNIFICATION OF THE VERB IS RESTRICTED BY THE 
WORDS NE, QUE, MEANING GENERALLY BUT OR ONLY. 

968. When ne, used with que, has the meaning of seulement, only, 
but, no other negative word can be placed after the verb. 

A man who loves himself only is loved Un homme qui n'aime que lui, n'est 

by nobody. aime de personne. 

He does nothing but laugh. II ne fait que rire. 

I found nobody but him. Je n'ai trouve que lui, &c. 



OF CASES IN WHICH A VERB IS PRECEDED BY QUE, USED INSTEAD OF WHY, 
POURQUOI. 

969. When the verb is preceded by que, instead of pourquoi, why, 
pas and point are both omitted ; as in, 

Why are you not as reasonable as your Que re'etes vous aussi raisonnable que 
brother 1 votre frere 1 



475 



OF CASES IN WHICH A VERB IS PRECEDED BY AJMOINS QUE OR SI, HAVING THE 
MEANING OF UNLESS. 

970. When the verb is preceded by amoins que, or si, having the 
same meaning, unless, pas and point are both omitted. 

I shall not go out un.ess you call for Je ne sortirai pas amoins que vous ne 

me. veniez me prendre. 

I shall not go to his ball, if he does not Je n'irai pas a son bal, s'il ne ni'y in- 

send me an invitation by letter. vite par une lettre. 



OF CASES rX WHICH EITHER OF THE EXPRESSIONS IL Y A OR DEPTHS QUE ARE 
FOLLOWED BY A VERB USED EITHER IN THE PRETERITE INDEFINITE, THE 
PLUPERFECT, OR THE FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

971. When a verb in the preterite indefinite, the pluperfect, or the 
future anterior, is preceded by the conjunction depuis que, or by que 
preceded by the verb il y a, there is, pas and point should both 
be omitted, and ne placed before the verb. 

How have you been since we have seen Comment vous 6tes vous porte depuis 

you 1 que nous ne vous avons vu ? 

We have not seen him for the last three II y a trois mois que nous ne Vavons vu. 

months. 

We had not met for a long time. II y avait longtems que nous ne nous 

etions rencontres. 

When you have been out of your coun- Quand il y aura douze ans que vous 

try for twelve years, you will come n'aurez vu votre patrie, vous y ren- 

back to it. trerez. 

972. Remark. The second negation is not suppressed whenever the 
verb is either in the present, the imperfect, or the future present ; 
as in. 

How does he live now that we do not Comment vit-il depuis que nous ne le 

see him any more. voyons plus? 

We have not seen him for the last six II y a six mois que nous ne le voyons 

months. point. 

We had ceased visiting each other for II y avait longtems que nous ne nous 

a long time. voyionsplus. 

When you shall have been sick ten Quand il y aura dix ans, que vous ne 

vears, you will have the right to serez pas bien portant, vous aurez le 

complain. droit de vous plaindre. 



OF CASES rN WHICH A VERB IS PRECEDED BY A COMPARATIVE EITHER OF SU- 
PERIORITY OR INFERIORITY, OR BY ANY OF THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, 
AUTRE, AUTREMENT, PEU, ETC. 

973. When the conjunction que is preceded by the comparative 
adverbs, plus, moins, mieux, &c, or the words autre, autrement, peu, 
&c, used as comparatives ; as in, 



476 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



He writes better than he speaks. II ecrit mieux ow'il ne parle. 

We despise those who speak otherwise On meprise ceux qui parlent autrement 

than they think. qv'U ne pensent. 

This is different from what I thought. C'est autre chose que je ne croyais. 
I have come very near being deceived. Peu s'en est fallu que je n'aie ete trom- 

pee, &c. 

974. But it ought to be remarked, that, in expressions similar to 
the preceding, the negation ne should only be used when the first 
membei of the sentence is affirmative ; thus, we should say : 

He does not write any better than he II n'ecYiipas mieux qu'il parle. 

speaks. 
We do not respect those who speak Nous n'estimons pas ceux qui parlent 

differently from what they think. autrement qu'ils pensent. 

This is not otherwise than I thought. Ceci n'est pas autre chose que je croy- 
ais, &c. 



OF CASES IN WHICH EITHER OF THE VERBS DOUTER, DESESPERER, NIER, AND 
DISCONVENIR, EMP&CHER, PRENDRE GARDE, CRAINDRE, AND OTHERS OF 
A SIMILAR NATURE, IS EMPLOYED IN THE FIRST PART OF A SENTENCE. 

975. In phrases united by the conjunction que to the verbs douter, 
to doubt, desesperer, to despair, nier, and disconvenir , to deny, used 
negatively, ne is used before the verb of the second proposition, but 
pas or point is omitted. 

I do not doubt that he will come. Je ne doute pas qn'i\ ne vienne. 

Do not despair to succeed by these Ne desesperez pas que ce moyen ne vous 

means. reussisse. 

I do not deny having said such a thing. Je ne nie pas que je ne l'aie dit. 

I do not deny that it might be so. Je ne disconviens pas que cela ne soit. 

Remark. The Academy observes, that with the two last verbs, nier 
and disconvenir, the negation ne may be dispensed with, in the second 
member of the sentence, and that we may say : 

Je ne nie pas, or je ne disconviens pas , que cela soit. 

976. Pas is also omitted in the second member of sentences begin- 
ning with the verbs empecher, prendre, garde, meaning, to take care, 
when used affirmatively ; as in, 

I shall take care that you will not be 3'empecherai que vous ne soyez du 

included in the number. nombre. 

Take care that they do not seduce you. Prenez garde qu'ils ne vous seduisent. 

Remark. In this acceptation, the verb prendre garde is followed by 
the subjunctive ; but if this verb signifies to think, then it should re- 
quire the indicative, and be followed by pas or point; as in, 



ADVERB. 477 

Think only that you do not understand Prencz garde que voufi ne m'entendez 
me. pas. 

977. It is also omitted with verbs united by the conjunction que to 
the verb craindre, to fear, and others of similar meaning, when used 
affirmatively, provided we do not wish for what is expressed by the 
second part of the sentence ; as in, 

He is afraid that his brother will for- II craint que son frere ne l'abandonne. 

sake him. 
I fear ray friend will die. Je crains que inon ami ne meure. 

But pas is not suppressed when we wish for what is expressed by 
the second verb ; as in, 

I fear my father will not come. Je crains que mon pere ne vienne pas 

978. Pas or point ought, also, to be omitted with the verb which 
follows de peur que, de crainte que, for fear that, in the same cases in 
which it is omitted with craindre. Thus, when we say : 

For fear that he should lose his law- De peur gtf'il ne perde son proces, 
suit, 

we wish him to gain the lawsuit ; but in the following, with the addi- 
tion of pas, 

For fear that he might not lose his law- De peur qu'W ne perde pas son proces, 
suit, 

we wish that he might lose it. 



OF CASES IN WHICH THE VERB SAVOIR, BEING USED NEGATIVELY, WEANS 
EITHER TO BE UNABLE, TO BE IGNORANT OF, OR NOT TO KNOW. 

979. Pas or point ought in all cases to be omitted after the verb 
savoir, meaning, to be able ; as in, 

I could not possibly do it. Je ne saurais en venir a bout. 

When savoir means, to be uncertain, it is also better to suppress 
the second negation ; as in, 

I do not know where to find him. Je ne sais ou le prendre. 

He does not know what he says. II ne salt ce qu'il dit. 

But pas or point must be used whenever the verb savoir is employed 
in its natural signification ; as in, 

He does not know the French. II ne sait pas le Francais. 



478 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



This article on the negation ne, although of great length, is far 
from containing all that could be said about it ; but the above rules are 
sufficient for a grammar ; the remaining part belongs to dictionaries. 



QUESTIONS 



886. What is the definition of an adverb 1 

886. What part of speech do adverbs serve to modify 1 

886. What is the etymology of the word adverb? 

887. Can an adverb modify a word expressing a quality which can neither 
be increased nor diminished 1 

887. Are not adverbs generally abridged expressions, and what do they then 
represent 1 

888. Are adverbs declinable or indeclinable 1 

888. In what particular do adverbs differ from prepositions 1 

889. Has an adverb a complete sense of itself 1 

889. Are not the same words sometimes used as adverbs and prepositions 1 
What is then the difference in their meaning % (Give some examples.) 

890. Are not adjectives sometimes used as adverbs 1 (Examples.) 

891. Are not adverbs sometimes used as nouns 1 Do they then take either 
number and gender 1 

892. Although adverbs have generally no object, are there not some excep- 
tions to this rule 1 Which are they 1 Why these exceptions 1 

893. Into how many classes are adverbs divided, according to their signifi- 
cation 1 (The pupils should recite the several classes.) 

893. Into how many large classes are the ten classes of adverbs divided 1 
Which are they 1 

894. What are the adverbs expressing affirmation % 

895. How many adverbs expressing doubt are there in French 1 

896. What are the negative adverbs 1 

897. What do we understand by an adverb of manner 1 

897. For what purpose have adverbs of manner been introduced into the 
language 1 

897. What is the termination of the adverbs of manner which are derived 
from adjectives *? 

897. How is an adverb of manner formed when it is derived from an 
adjective ending with a vowel 1 What are the exceptions 1 

898. How is an adverb of manner formed when it is derived from an 
adjective ending with a consonant 1 What is the only exception 1 

899. How is an adverb of manner formed when it is derived from an adjec- 
tive ending either in ant or ent? What are the exceptions 1 

900. Are there not a few adverbs ending in ent which do not derive from 
adjectives 1 Which are they 1 

901. Are there not many adverbs of manner which do not derive from adjec- 
tives 1 (Mention some of them.) 

902. Is the letter e which precedes the termination ent always mute 1 If not, 
what are the exceptions !? (The pupils should learn tids list of exceptions.) 

903. Are adverbs of manner generally susceptible of comparison 1 Do they 
follow the same rule as adjectives q . 

903. Are there any exceptions to this rule 1 If there are any, which are they 1 

904. How do the adverbs bien and mal form their comparative and superla- 
tive relative 1 

905. Cannot adverbs of manner be themselves modified by adverbs of quan- 
tity 1 



ADVERB. 



479 



906. What do we understand by an adverb of order 1 

906. What part of speech can these adverbs modify 1 Can they be modified 
by other adverbs 1 

906. When is it that the adverb first can with propriety be expressed by 
premieremeat ? 

907. When the adverb then, being placed at the head of a sentence, implies 
an idea of posteriority or futurity in reference to that which it follows, how is it 
expressed in French 1 

90S. When the adverb then, still placed at the head of a sentence, implies in 
its meaning an idea of actuality, and signifies at that moment, how is it ex- 
pressed ] 

909. When the adverb then is used to show that the proposition at the head 
of which it is placed is intended to express a consequence in reference to some- 
thing said before, how is it expressed 1 

910. What is the place of the several adverbs used in French to correspond 
to the meaning of then? 

911. What is understood by an adverb either of place or distance 1 

911. Can adverbs of place be used either in the comparative or superlative 
degree 1 

912. Can adverbs of distance be used either in the comparative or superla- 
tive degree ] 

912. When die words pres and loin are followed by de, do they keep their 
character of adverbs 1 What do they become then 1 

913, 914. "What do we understand by an adverb of time 1 

913, 914. Into how many classes are adverbs of time divided 1 Which are 
they 1 (Give some examples of each class.) 

9l5. Are there not some adverbs of time which are susceptible of taking the 
decrees of comparison \ Which are tiiey l . 

915. By what prepositions can the adverbs jamais and toujours be properly 
preceded ? 

916. What do we understand by adverbs of quantity 1 

917. What is the difference between plus and davantage? 

917. Which of these adverbs is most elegantly used at the end of a sentence 1 
917. Is davantage properly followed by de or que? 

917. Is davantage properly used instead of le plus? 

918. What do we understand by an adverb of comparison % By what con- 
junction are they always followed 1 

920. What is the place of adverbs with the verbs either in simple or com- 
pound tenses \ 

921. What is die place of compound adverbs 1 

921. What is the place of adverbs designating time in a relative manner 1 

922. W hat is the place of adverbs of order, and of those that designate time 
in a iixed and determinate manner 1 

923. What is the place of monosyllabic adverbs with verbs used in the infin- 
itive mood 1 

924. What is the place of interrogative adverbs *? 

925. What is the place of adverbs in reference to adjectives 1 

926. 927. What is the place of adverbs in reference to one another \ 
92S. What part of speech does the adverb assez modify 1 

- 92$. When followed by a noun, what preposition does it govern 1 

92?. What kind of adverbs does assez modify 1 (The teacher should a?k 
his pupils to mention the adverbs which, in each case, are modi6ed bv assez.) 

929. What part of speech do au mains and du moins modify 1 What is their 
place 1 

930. What adverbs does au plus modify 1 

931. What part of speech does aussi modify 1 

931. Can aussi be used to modify a past participle conjugated with avoir? 
931. A\ hat is the place of aussi with an adjective in a sentence which does 
not express a comparison, when it has the meaning of also. 



480 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

931. What classes of adverbs does aussi modify 1 (Same remark here as 
when speaking of assez.) 

932. What parts of speech does autant modify 1 

932. Can autant be used with a participle conjugated with to be? In what 
case can autant modify an adjective 1 

933. What parts of speech does bien modify 1 When followed by a noun, 
how is bien separated from that noun 1 

933. What are the adverbs which bien modifies 1 (Same remark as above.) 

934. What part of speech does beaucoup modify 1 

934. Can beaucoup modify a past participle conjugated with etre? 

934. In what case can beaucoup be used to modify an adjective 1 

934. What are the only adverbs which can be modified by beaucoup 1 

935. What part of speech can davantage modify % 

936. What parts of speech does fort modify 1 

936. What are the adverbs which can be modified by fort? (Same remark 
as above.) 

937. What parts of speech does tres modify 1 

937. What are the adverbs which can be modified by tres? 

938. What parts of speech do plus and moins modify 1 

938. What are the adverbs which can be modified by either of the adverbs 
plus and moins 1 (If there is any difference in either case, mention it.) 

939. What parts of speech does peu modify 1 

939. What are the adverbs which can be modified by peu? (Same remark 
as above.) 

940. What parts of speech does presque modify 1 

940. What are the adverbs which can be modified by presque? (Same remark 
as above.) 

941. What parts of speech does si modify 1 

941. What are the adverbs that can be modified by si? (Same remark as 
above.) 

942. What are the parts of speech modified by tant? 

942. What are the adverbs that can be modified by tant? (Same remark as 
above.) 

943. What are the parts of speech modified by trop? 

943. What are the adverbs that trop can modify 1 (Same remark as above.) 

944. What are the parts of speech that tout can modify 1 

944. When tout modifies a noun, how is it used with that noun 1 (The 
teacher should refer to the indefinite pronoun tout, and repeat the questions in 
reference to the manner in which tout is used with an adjective, when it means 
either however, although very, or quite.) 

944. What are the adverbs that tout can modify 1 (Same remark as above.) 

945. (The teacher should frame, himself, the questions necessary to ascertain 
whether his pupils understand the signification of the several combinations of 
adverbs contained between the paragraphs 945 and 955.) 

956. How is a negation expressed in French 1 

956. Is pas or point invariably used with ne to form a negation 1 

957. What is the place of the negative word ne? 

958. 959. What is the place of the negative words pas and point? 

960. What is the difference in the meaning of pas and point? 

961. When is pas preferable to point? 

961. When is point preferable to pas? 

962. What difference is there in the meaning of the two following expres- 
sions, n'avez-vous pas, or point, vu telle personne? 

963. In what cases can pas or point be elegantly suppressed 1 

964. When the signification of a verb, in a negative sentence, is sufficiently 
restricted by the words which accompany that verb, is either pas or point ex- 
pressed in French 1 

964. When a verb is accompanied either by a negative adverb, noun, or 
pronoun, is either pas or point omitted, or not 1 



CONJUNCTION. 



481 



965. When two negative propositions are separated either by que or a rela- 
tive pronoun, is pas or point expressed in the second proposition 1 

966. When a verb, used negatively, is followed by a noun expressing the 
smallest parts of a whole, and that noun is neither preceded by an adjective of 
number nor by the article the, is pas or point used with that verb 1 

966. How is it when the noun, qualified as above, is either preceded by a 
numerical adjective or the article the? 

967. When two negative propositions are connected by the conjunction neither, 
ni, or when that conjunction is at all employed in a sentence, is pas or point 
used with the verb 1 Is there no exception to the preceding rule 1 

968. Is pas or point ever used when a verb is accompanied by ne que? 

969. Is pas or point ever used when the verb is preceded by que employed for 
pourquoi, why, in interrogative or exclamative sentences 1 

970. Is pas or point expressed with a verb preceded either by si or amoins 
que, meaning unless? 

971. 972. In what tenses should a verb, preceded either by il y a or the con- 
junction depuis que, be used for pas or point being either omitted or expressed 
after that verb 1 

973-976. Whenever a verb is preceded by any of the comparative adverbs, 
mieux, moins,plus, &c, or by the words autre, autrement, peu, or any other of 
the same nature, in an affirmative sentence, is that verb preceded by ne and fol- 
lowed by pas, or is pas omitted % 

974. What is the case if the sentence was negative 1 

975. When the verbs douter and desesperer are used negatively, is ne ex- 
pressed before the verb from which they are separated by que? 

975. How is it when used affirmatively % 

975. (Same question in reference to nier and disconvenir.) 

976. When the verbs empecher and prendre garde are used affirmatively, is ne 
used before the second verb from which they are separated by que, and should 
pas be omitted 1 

976. What should be the case if these two verbs were used negatively 1 

977, 978. (Same questions in reference to the verb craindre, or any other 
having the same meaning, and the conjunctions depeur que, de crainte que, &c.) 

979. Is pas or point ever expressed with the verb savoir used negatively and 
meaning to be unable or ignorant of ? 

979. How is it when savoir is used in its natural sense 1 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



980. The different sorts of words of which we have hitherto 
treated serve for the composition of sentences ; but of sentences 
which are isolated from each other, and which, for the sake of clear- 
ness and precision, need to be united together, so as to express satis- 
factorily the whole meaning of our thoughts, the complete operations 
of our mind. 

The mind unites things, ideas, persons, together, and also opposes 
them to each other ; it compares, divides, makes exceptions, adds, 
diminishes, explains, designates, concludes, and shows the inten- 
41 



482 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

tion, the end, the time, the uncertainty, the motives, &c., which are 
necessary to express our ideas ; these operations, so diverse, must 
require many repetitions, much time, and also must create confusion ; 
all of which difficulties are extremely simplified, and even avoided, 
with the help of conjunctions. 

Conjunctions, then, are words which serve to unite together phrases, 
or parts of phrases, thus rendering apparent and clear the various 
operations of the mind ; they are indeclinable, like prepositions and 
adverbs. 

The word conjunction is derived from the two Latin words, cum 
and jungere, which signify to join with, together, and this name has 
been applied to any words which serve to join propositions together. 

981. Conjunctions may be considered with regard to their forma- 
tion, or their signification. 

In regard to the formation of conjunctions, they are either simple 
or compound. Simple conjunctions are those which are expressed 
by a single word, as et, and, si, if, ou, or, mais, but, &c. Com- 
pound conjunctions are those which are formed of several words, as d, 
moins que, unless, soit que, whether, pourvu que, provided, &c. 

982. It is always easy to distinguish a conjunction from an adverb 
or a preposition, which are the only parts of speech that may be mis- 
taken for them. 

Simple conjunctions differ from the adverbs, inasmuch as they do 
not express any circumstance of the noun or verb which they pre- 
cede or follow ; and they differ from the prepositions in this respect, 
— that their last word is almost always followed by de or que. 



OF CONJUNCTIONS CONSIDERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR SIGNIFI- 
CATION. 

983. All that can be said on conjunctions, in reference to their sig- 
nification, is of no practical use to students ; it belongs to dictionaries 
to show, through proper illustrations, what word should be used in 
French to convey the meaning of the English sentence ; the only con- 
junction which requires explanation on account of the numerous ways 
in which it is idiomatically used, is the conjunction que; the following 
chapter contains all the necessary information on the subject. 



CONJUNCTION. 483 



OF THE USE AND DIFFERENT MODES OF EMPLOYING THE CONJUNC- 
TION a UE, THAT. 

984. We employ, most frequently, the conjunction que to connect 
two verbs together ; as in, 

T believe that I see him. Je crois que je le vois. 

I doubt that he will come. Je doute qu'il vienne. 

This conjunction is preceded by a verb and followed by another 
verb, which, as we have already seen, is sometimes used in the 
indicative and sometimes in the subjunctive mood. The conjunction 
que is always easily distinguishable from the relative or absolute pro- 
noun que. h is a pronoun when it may be turned by lequel, laquelle, 
the which, or by quelque chose, quelle chose, something, what thing ; 



God, whom I love. Dieu, que, or lequel, j'aime. 

What do you see yonder 1 Que, or quelle chose, voyez-vous la bas 1 

But it is always a conjunction when this change cannot take 
place ; as in , 

I believe that the soul is immortal. Je crois que l'ame est immortelle. 

985. In phrases where there are several propositions connected by 
que, this word ought to be repeated before each one of these proposi- 
tions ; as in, 

When I think that Christians do not Quand je considere que les Chretiens 

die altogether; that they only suffer a ne meurent point; qu'\\s ne font que 

change of life ; that the apostle warns changer de vie ; que l'aputre nous 

us not to weep over those who are avertit de ne pas pleurer ceux qui 

sleeping in death, as if hope were not dorment dans le sommeil de la moit, 

left to us; that faith teaches us that comme si nous n'avions pas d'espe- 

the church of heaven and earth are ranee ; que la foi nous apprend que 

but one sinsle body; that we belong l'eglise du ciel et celle de la terre ne 

to the Almighty, whether we are sont qu'un meme corps; que nous 

alive or dead; when I think, also, apporterons au Seigneur, soit que 

that she whose death we regret is nous vivions, soit que nous mouri- 

living in God, can I believe that we ons; quand je considere, dis-je, que 

have lost her 1 celle dont nous regrettons la mort est 

vivante en Dieu, puis-je croire que 
nous l'ayons perdue 1 ? — (Flechicr.) 

But although this rule is absolute, we must avoid its application in 
sentences similar to the preceding, the repetition of the word que ren- 
dering the style heavy and disagreeable to the ear ; it is requisite, 
then, to change tbe form of the sentence so as to render unnecessary 



484 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

the repetition of the same word. We shall, as an example, alter the 
form of the above sentence, and suppress que; it will be easily seen, 
by those whose ear is familiarized to the language, how much more 
pleasantly it will sound after this change. 

Christians ourselves, we are aware Chretiens nous memes, nous ne l'igno- 

that Christians do not die ; they only rons pas, les Chretiens ne meurent 

change their life for another; and the point; ils ne font que changer de 

apostle warns us not to weep over vie; et l'apotre nous avertit de ne 

those who sleep the sleep of death, as pas pleurer ceux qui dorment dans 

if we had no hope; and besides, does le sommeil de la mort; comme si 

not faith teach us that the church of nous n'avions pas d'esperance ! et 

heaven and that of earth are but the d'ailleurs la foi ne nous apprend-elle 

same body 1 Ah ! since she whose pas, que l'eglise du ciel et celle de la 

death we regret is living in God, it terre ne sont qu'un meme corps 1 

is not permitted to us to believe that Ah ! quand celle dont nous pleurons 

we have really lost her. la mort est vivante devant Dieu, il 

ne nous est pas permis de croire que 
nous 1'ayons perdue. 

986. Let us see what are the other uses of the conjunction que. It 
is used : 

1st. To compare ; as in, 

Asia is larger than Europe. L'Asie est plus grande que l'Europe. 

987. 2d. To restrict negative sentences, and then it means only; 
as in, 

These ideas serve only to torment us. Ces idees ne servent gw'a nous tour- 

menter. 
One is happy only far from the world. On n'est heureux que loin du monde. 

Remark. Ne que is sometimes used for ne rien, nothing, as in the 
following expressions : 

I have nothing to do here, Je n'ai que faire ici, 

instead of, 

Je ?i'ai rien a faire ici. 

I have no want of him. Je n'ai que faire de lui. 

It is not necessary for me to tell you. Je n'ai que faire de vous dire. 

988. Ne que, used with some tenses of the verb faire, and 

followed by the preposition de, of, and an infinitive, designates an 
action which is just passed ; as in, 

He is just gone. II nefait que de partir. 



CONJUNCTION. 485 

The action of being gone is past, although quite recently ; but with- 
out the preposition de, of, ne que expresses a habit ; as in, 

He does nothing else but play. II ne fait que jouer. 

989. 3d. To express a wish, an order, &c, and then there is a 
verb which is understood, and which ought to precede it ; as in, 

Let hirn go, Qu'il s'en aille, 

that is to say, 

I wish him to go. Je desire qu'W s'en aille, or je veux,j'or- 

donne,je souhaite, qu'W s'en aille. 

The subjunctive mood, used in the third person singular and plural, 
in sentences similar to the preceding, is actually an ellipsis. 

990. Que is used instead of afin que after an imperative ; as in, 

Approach, that I may speak to you. Approchez, que (afin que) je vous parle. 

And instead of pour que after an interrogation ; as in, 

Who are you, that you think you have Qui etes-vous done, que vous ayez le 
a right to insult me 7 . droit de m'insulter 1 

991. It is also used instead of ct moins que, avant que, sans que; 
as in, 

This will not cease unless he comes. Cela ne finira pas (a moins que) ^u'il 

ne vienne. 
I shall not finish before he comes. Je ne finirai pas (avant que) qu'W ne 

soit venu. 
He cannot go out without catching a II ne peut sortir qu'W (sans qu'il) ne 
cold. s'enrhume. 

992. Instead of des que, aussitot que, as soon as, si, if: 

As soon as, or if, he makes the small- Qu'il fasse la moindre faute, et il est 
est fault, he is sure to be punished. sur d'etre puni. 

993. Instead of quoique, although, soit que, whether: 

Although he has much learning, he Tout savant qu'W est, il n'a pu me re- 
could not answer me. pondre. 

"Whether he wishes or not, it matters Qu'il veuille ou qu'W ne veuille pas, 

but little. peu m'importe. 

994. Instead of depuis que, after il y a, there is : 

I have not seen him for two years. II ya deux ans que (depuis que) je ne 

l'ai vu. 



11 



486 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

995. Instead of jusqu'ii, ce que, until : 

Wait until he comes. Attendez (jusqu'a ce que) qu'W vienne. 

996. Instead of et cependant, that : 

If misers should have all the riches in Les avares auraient tout l'or du monde 
the world, they would not be better qu'ils n'en seraient pas plus satis- 
satisfied for it. faits. 

997. Instead of puisque, since, after an interrogation : 

Are the bottles broken, that they do not Les bouteilles, sont elles cassees, que 

bring any 1 l'on n'en apporte point 1 

What ails you, that you do not eat any- Qu'avez-vous, que vous ne mangez 

thing 1 point 1 

998. Instead of pourquoi, why : 

Why does he not amend himself 1 Que ne se corrige-t-il 1 

This expression is only used in interrogative sentences, where the 
second negation is not employed ; with ne pas. que is an absolute pro- 
noun ; as in, 

What has he not done in order to sue- Que re'a-t-il pas fait pour reussir 1 
ceed 1 

999 Instead of et, when followed by si, if; as in, 

Ifyoutellme. Que si vous me dites. 

This expression belongs rather to the familiar style ; but it is very 
energetic. 

1000. Instead of comme and parceque, as, because : 

Full as he was of his own prejudices, Rempli gw'il etait de prejuges, il ne 
he would never confess his errors on voulut jamais convenir de ses torts, 
any subject. 

1001. Instead of combien, how. In this acceptation que expresses 
admiration, astonishment, repugnance, indignation, &c. ; as in, 

How good God is ! Que Dieu est bon ! 

How troublesome you are J Que vous 6tes importun ! 

How I hate him ! Que je le hais ! &c. 

1002. In fine, instead of comme, lorsque, parceque, puisque, quand, 
qvoique, si, &c, when we join to propositions beginning with these 
words others beginning with et, and, both being under the same regi- 
men : as in, 



CONJUNCTION. 487 

If men were wise, and would follow Si les homines etaient sages, et qu'ils 

the dictates of reason, they would voulussent suivre les lumieres de leur 

avoid much trouble. raison, ils s'eviteraient bien des cha- 
grins. 

When one has the disposition and the Quand on a des dispositions et que l'on 
will to study, one makes rapid pro- veut etudier, on fait de rapides pro- 
gress, gres. 

Remark. This elegance of style is a law among good writers, and 
must be observed in all similar cases. 

In regard to the other cases, a thorough knowledge of the language, 
and a long practice, will alone enable a foreigner to know exactly 
when he must apply them. 



OF THE OBJECT OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1003. Conjunctions unite sentences together, and govern the fol- 
lowing verbs either in the infinitive, the indicative, or the subjunctive 
mood. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS GOVERNING THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

1004. There are two sorts of conjunctions governing the infinitive. 
1st. Those which differ from prepositions only in being followed by 

a verb, such as apres, after, pour, for, in order, jusqu'vL, until, &c. 

We must rest, after having been at II faut se reposer apres avoir travaille. 

work. 

I work to earn my living. Je travaille pour gagner ma vie. 

He is so avaricious that he does not II est avare jusqu'd se refuser le neces- 

allow himself the necessaries of life. saire. 

He works without taking the least re- II travaille sans prendre le moindre 

pose. repos. 

We ought to remark, that between these conjunctions and the 
verbs we can place only the objective pronouns, the negation ne, or ne 
pas, and the adverb y ; as in, 

He has done that in order not to dis- II n'a fait cela que pour ne pas lui de- 
please him. plaire. 

1005. 2d. All those which are terminated by de; such zsfaute de, 
for want of, de peur de, de crainle de, for fear of, au lieu de, instead of, 
loin de, far from, plutot que de, rather than, &c. 

If I apply myself so much to study, it is Si je m'applique autant a l'etude, c'est 
in order to surpass you. afin de vous surpasser. 



488 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



He seeks her, instead of running from II la recherche au lieu de la fuir. 

her. 

Far from desponding, you must increase Loin de vous decourager, vous devez 

your efforts. redoubler d'ardeur. 

These conjunctions, with an infinitive following, form, as we see 
by the above examples, incidental propositions, subject to the control 
of the first sentence, which is always the principal. 

This mode of expression has much force, and ought to be preferred 
to any other, when there can be no ambiguity ; and there will never 
be any ambiguity, if the rules we gave when speaking of the infinitive 
mood are properly attended to. (We refer the pupil to them.) 



OF CONJUNCTIONS GOVERNING THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

1006. The conjunctions which govern the indicative mood after 
them are the following : 



Bien entendu que, 

A la charge que, 

Ainsi que, 

Autant que, 

Outre que, 

A cause que, 

Vu que, 

C'est pour cela que, 

Dans le temps que, 

Tandis que, 

Tant que, 

Des que, 

A ce que, 

A condition que, 



De meme que, 
Aussi bien que, 
Non plus que, 
Parce que, 
Attendu que, 
Puisque, 
Lorsque, 
Pendant que, 
Durant que, 
Depuis que, 
Aussitot que, 
A mesure que, 
Peut-etre que. 






To which we may add the following : 



Si, 

Comme si, 
Comme, 



Quand, 
Pourquoi, &c. 



I agree to it, provided you will be one 

of the party. 
One must work as much as one can. 
You will take some other measures 

you are prudent. 
When a man is wise, he avoids danger. 



J'y consens, a condition que vous serez 

de la partie. 
II faut travailler autant qu'on le peut. 
f Vous prendrez d'autres mesures, si vous 
etes prudent. 
Quand on est sage, on evite le danger, 
&c. 



All these conjunctions govern the indicative mood, because they are 
always preceded by verbs which express affirmation in a direct, posi- 
tive, and independent manner. 

1007. They do not present any difficulty. However, there are six 



CONJUNCTION. 489 

others, which require particular attention, because they sometimes 
govern the indicative mood, sometimes the subjunctive ; they are 

Sinon que, Tellement que, 

En sorte que, De sorte que, 

Si ce n'est que, De maniere que. 

This difficulty will be avoided by observing the following rules. 

"We have seen, in treating of verbs, that the verb of the incidental 
proposition ought to be in the indicative mood when the verb of the 
principal proposition expresses affirmation in a direct, positive, and 
independent manner ; but it ought to be used in the subjunctive when 
the verb of the principal proposition expresses doubt, surprise, admi- 
ration, uncertainty, fear, &c, that is to say, an impulse of the mind. 
It is according to this rule, that these six conjunctions govern the 
indicative or subjunctive mood ; thus, we should say, with the indica- 
tive : 

He has behaved so as to deserve the II s'est conduit de maniere, or de telle 
respect of honest people. sorte, qu'W a merite l'estirae des hon- 

netes gens. 

He answered nothing, but that he would II ne repondit rien, sinon qu'il ne le 
not do it. voulait pas. 

And, with the subjunctive : 

You must behave so as to deserve the Comportez vous de maniere, or de telle 
respect of honest people. sorte, que vous meritiez l'estime des 

honn6tes gens. 

I only fear that he may not succeed as Je ne crains rien, sinon qu'il ne reus- 
soon as he thinks. sisse pas aussitot qu'il le croit. 



OF CONJUNCTIONS GOVERNING THE SUEJUNCTTVE MOOD. 

1008. We refer the student to our article on the subjunctive mood, 
which contains, besides all the explanations necessary in order to 
ascertain whether a verb should be used either in the indicative or 
subjunctive mood, a list of all the conjunctions which govern this latter 
mood. 

PLACE OF CONJUNCTIONS 

1009. We have only a few words to say in reference to the place 
which an incidental proposition beginning with a conjunction should 
occupy. 

When a sentence is composed of two propositions, united by a con- 



490 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

junction, harmony and clearness require, generally, that the shortest 
be placed first ; as in, 

When passions leave us, we vainly Quand les passions nous quittent, nous 

flatter ourselves that we leave them. nous flattens en vain que c'est nous 

qui les quittons. 

One is not to be pitied, if he allows his On n'est point d plaindre quand, au 

mind to be taken up with chimeras defaut de biens reels, on trouve le 

instead of things which have a real moyen de s'occuper de chimeres. 
value. 

If these sentences were constructed in the other way, there would 
be no harmony, and no clearness, at least in the last proposition. This 
fault in constructing sentences will appear clearly in the next example : 

We could not reconcile Avith the justice On ne peut concilier avec la justice de 

of God, the sight of virtue languish- Dieu, le spectacle de la vertu dans 

ing in irons, while vice is permitted les fers, tandis que le vice est sur le 

on the throne, without admitting a trune, sans admettre une autre vie. 
future life. 



QUESTIONS. 



980. What is the definition of the word conjunction 1 

980. From what is the word conjunction derived 1 

981. Into how many classes are conjunctions divided, in reference to their 
formation 1 

982. How is a conjunction distinguished either from an adverb or a prepo- 
sition 1 

983. How should a foreigner ascertain what conjunction he has to use in 
French to convey the meaning of such conjunction in English 1 

984. For what purpose is the conjunction que most generally used in French 1 

984. How is the conjunction que distinguished from the relative pronoun que? 

985. Should the conjunction que be repeated at the beginning of each of the 
propositions which that conjunction is intended to connect together 1 

985. Should not sentences be so constructed as to avoid the too frequent 
repetition of the conjunction que? 

986. Is not the conjunction que used to form a comparison 1 When thus used, 
where is it placed 1 

987. For what purpose is que used in connection with ne, and what do these 
two words, thus coupled together, signify in English 1 

988. What is the difference between the expressions, ne faire que and ne 
faire que de? 

989. Is not que sometimes used at the beginning of a sentence 1 What is 
the sentence then intended to express 1 In what mood is a verb so used 1 

990. What are the conjunctions instead of which que should properly be 
used 1 (The teacher should examine his pupils separately on this paragraph 
and the following up to the 1002d inclusively.) 

1003. In what mood or moods can a conjunction govern the verb which it 
precedes 1 

1004. Into how many classes are the conjunctions divided which govern the 
infinitive mood 1 



INTERJECTION. 491 

1005. What is the character of the two kinds of conjunctions which require 
the infinitive mood to be used after them 1 

1005. When two verbs follow one another, being separated by a conjunc- 
tion, which mood should be preferred, the infinitive, or either the indicative or 
subjunctive with que? (The teacher should here review with his pupils what 
has already been explained when speaking of the infinitive mood.) 

1006. What are the conjunctions which govern the indicative mood % and 
why do they govern that mood 1 

1007. Are there not six conjunctions which govern either the indicative or 
subjunctive mood 1 Which are they, and why is it so % 

1008. Where should the pupil refer in order to ascertain whether a conjunc- 
tion should govern the subjunctive mood 1 What is the general principle 
which should always guide him in order to ascertain what mood he should 
employ after a conjunction ending with que? 

1009. When a sentence is composed of two propositions united by a con- 
junction, which one is generally placed first % 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 



1010. The word interjection is formed from the Latin words inter, 
between, among, and jacere, to throw. We, in fact, call interjections 
indeclinable words, placed between other words, according to passion- 
ate impulses of the soul. 

We will not indicate what is the interjection which ought to express 
each particular condition of the soul. The mind may need a master to 
know how to enunciate with clearness and precision the ideas which 
it wishes to combine ; but the heart has no need of any, to depict, 
with truth, the pleasure which it enjoys, or the sorrow which weighs 
upon it. 

The number of interjections ought to be proportionate to that of the 
various feelings which the soul may experience ; but sometimes oppo- 
site feelings are expressed by the same word ; because interjections, 
not expressing an idea, but only a cry of nature, depend, as to their 
signification, upon the inflection of the voice, and the gesture which 
accompanies them. However, there are some of these words which 
are principally adapted to express some of the precise passions of the 
heart. 

1011. To express pain, grief, we use : Me! ay ! oh ! ah ! Ah! ay ! 
oh! ah! 7?efas.'alas! 0«/7 0!pho! Mon Dieu ! good God ! as in, 

Ah ! what have I not suffered since I Ah! que n'ai je pas souffert depuis que 

saw you last ! je ne vous ai vu ! 

Tho ! What a hot day ! Ouf ! Quelle chaleur ! 



492 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1012. To express joy and desire : Ah! ah ! Bon ! good ! as in, 
Ah ! how glad I am to see you again ! Ah ! que je suis aise de vous revoir ! 

1013. To express fear : He! ah! O! alas! as in, 

Alas ! what will become of us 1 Ah ! qu'allons nous devenir 1 

O ! what have I done 1 He ! qu'ai je fait % 

1014. To express hatred, contempt, and disgust : Fi! fi done! fy ! 
fy upon ! pugh ! &c. ; as in, 

Fy ! the villain ! fy, for good fare ! Fi ! le vilain ! fi de la bonne chere ! 

Fy ! What are you about 1 Fi done ! Y pensez-vous 1 

1015. For expressing derision: Oh! eh! zest! O! pshaw! straw! 
nonsense ! 

Oh ! what a queer man ! he boasts of Oh ! le plaisant homme ! il se vante 
being in favor with the great ! Non- d'etre bien aupres des grands ! Zest! 



1016. To express consent : Volontiers, soit ! well, let it be so ! 
Well! I consent to it. Soit! volontiers j'y consens. 

1017. To express admiration : Oh! O ! 

O ! how beautiful that is ! Oh ! que e'est beau ! 

1018. To express surprise: Oh! O! Bon Dieu! good God! 
Misericorde ! bless me ! mercy upon me ! &c. : 

O ! oh ! I did not think of that ! Oh ! oh ! je n'y prenais pas garde ! 

Good God ! ought we to have expected Bon Dieu ! devions nous nous attendre 
such a thing % a cela 1 

1019. The Academy remarks, that the interjection Oh ! serves to 
express several impulses of the soul, and most grammarians agree 
with the Academy in this respect ; but we think we can give a better 
idea of this word, by saying, that it expresses an exclamation, and 
always supposes that we address somebody or something ; it is, 
besides, almost always followed by a noun ; as in, 

Oh ! ashes of a husband ! O ! Trojans ! O ! cendres d'un epoux ! O ! Troyens ! 

O ! father ! O ! mon pere ! 

O ! how vain are the projects which O ! de quels vains projets cette vie est 

this life is made up of ! tissue ! 

In this last example, O! is not followed by any noun, but there is 
one understood ; it is as if we said : 

O, mortals ! O, my friends ! O, mv O, mortels ! O, mes amis ! O, mon 
God ! * Dieu ! 



INTERJECTION. 



493 



1020. To express encouragement: ps/ now! Alhns! well! 
Courage! courage ! Oh, ca! what now ! Tenezferme ! hold on ! &c. : 

Courage, my friends ! Courage, mes amis ! 

Well, courage! go ahead, my good Allons, ferme ! poussez, mes bons amis 
friends of the court. de cour. 

1021. To warn: Gare! take care! Hold,! holla! Ho, hoa! ho 
there ! Hem! hem ! so ho ! Tout beau! softly ! Gare Veau! take care 
below, &c. : 



Take care ! you will fall. 
Hem ! hem ! come here. 



Gare ! vous allez tomber. 
Hem ! hem ! venez ici. 



1022. To call: Holh! hoUa ! He! 0\ &c. 



Holla ! is there any one at home 1 
O ! here, I want to speak to you. 



Hold ! y a-t-il quelqu'un 1 
He ! ecoutez que je vous dise. 



1023. To silence : Chut ! hush ! Paix ! silence ! St ! peace ! hush ! 

Hush ! do not come nearer. Chut ! n'approchez pas davantage. 

Interjections have no particular place in the discourse ; they are pat 
according as the feelings require them ; the only care is, not to use 
them between two words which must never be separated by any other 
word ; as between the nominative and the verb, between the noun and 
the adjective which modifies it. What may be added to these re- 
marks belongs to taste and habit, and not to a grammar. 



QUESTIONS 



1010. What is the signification of the word interjection? 
1010. For what purpose are interjections used in language 1 

1010. Do not the sound of the voice, the gesture, and the countenance, enable 
the same interjection to express different impulses of the soul 1 

(The teacher should ask of his pupils to learn by heart the interjections con- 
tained in the several paragraphs from 1011 to 1023, so as to be able to answer 
the following questions.) 

1011. What are the interjections used to express either pain or grief? 



1012. 
1013. 
1014. 

1015. 
1016. 
1017. 
1018. 
1020. 
1021. 
1022. 
1023. 



joy or desire? 
fear? 
hatred, contempt, or 

disgust ? 
derision ?' 
consent ? 
admiration ? 
surprise ? 
encouragement ? 
warning ? 
to call? 
to silence? 






GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 



1024. Grammatical construction is the order which the genius of 
the language has established for the use of the parts of speech in con- 
structing sentences. 

A sentence may be expositive, interrogative, or imperative. 

A sentence, when expositive, may be affirmative, or negative. 



CONSTRUCTION OF AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES. 

1025. Simple sentences when used affirmatively, are arranged in 
the following manner : 

1st. The subject, modified or not by qualifications, or an incidental 
proposition. 

2d. The verb. 

3d. The adverb ; (in compound tenses the adverb is placed between 
the auxiliary and the past participle.) 

4th. The object, or objects, if there are several ; as in, 

God, who is good, governs the world with wisdom. 

JDieu, qui est bon, gouverne sagement le monde. 

subject. incidental proposition. verb. adverb. object. 

A good prince deserves the love of his subjects. 
Un bon prince merite V 'amour de ses sujets. 

subject qualified. verb. object. 

If we wish to add to this idea, that such prince deserves also the 
esteem of other nations, with the help of the conjunction et, and, we 
add this idea to the first, and these two simple propositions make the 
compound : 

Un bon prince merite 1 'amour de ses sujets et l'estime des autres nations. 

We find, here, the application of what we have said, in treating of 
conjunctions ; that is to say, that their functions consist in uniting 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 495 

isolated propositions ; without their assistance, the language would be 
unintelligible, from the necessity of repetitions, or the want of means 
to express the connection of our ideas. 

1026. But when two propositions in a sentence are united by a 
conjunction, which of the two propositions must stand first ? 

1st. If the two propositions are of the same extent, the impulse of 
the mind alone should be followed ; as in, 

One is not to be pitied when he is On n'est point a plaindre quand on est 
loved. aime. 



Quand on est aime, on n'est point a plaindre. 

2d. If the two propositions are not of the same extent, harmony and 
perspicuity generally require the shortest to be placed first ; as in, 

We are not to be pitied, when, instead On n'est point a plaindre, quand, au 
of hearing the voice of reason, we lieu d'ecouter la voix de la raison, 
abandon ourselves to our evil pas- on s'abandonne a ses mauvais pen- 
sions, chants. 

1027. When, instead of two propositions, there are several, their 
assemblage is called a period. 

Periods, in order to be clear, require the shortest propositions to be 
placed first, as in the following example, taken from Flechier : 

N'attendez pas, Messieurs, 
Que j'ouvre une scene tragique; 

Que je represente ce grand homme etendu sur ses propres trophees ; 
Que je decouvre ce corps pale et sanglant, aupres duquel fume encore la foudre 

qui 1'a frappe; 
Que je fasse crier son sang comme celui d'Abel, et que j'expose a vos yeux les 

images de la religion et de la patrie eploree. 

Four propositions are the largest number which can be admitted by 
a good style, consistently with clearness and harmony. 

1028. A negative sentence differs from an affirmative in the use of 
the two negative words, ne and pas, properly employed, as we have 
already stated in the article on adverbs. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES USED INTERROGATIVELY. 

1029. A sentence is said to be interrogative, when used to ask a 
question. 



496 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

An interrogative sentence may be positive or negative. A sentence 
which is interrogative and positive may have for its nominative either, 

1st. A noun. 

2d. A personal pronoun. 

3d. An absolute pronoun. 

4th. A demonstrative pronoun. 

These parts of speech may or may not be preceded by an inter- 
rogative adverb. 

The only difference in the construction of affirmative and interroga- 
tive sentences, consists in the place which the nominative, and some- 
times the indirect object, occupies in either ; as the place of those two 
words has already been explained when speaking of the relation exist- 
ing between the verb and its nominative and object, we refer the 
student to that part of the grammar, in which he will find all the 
necessary information on the subject. 



CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 






1030. In sentences simply imperative, the verb is always placed 
first, in the first and second persons, but in the third person it comes 
after the pronoun, preceded by que; the other words occupy the same 
place as they do in affirmative sentences. If we speak of the third 
person in the imperative mood, it is only to conform with a usage 
adopted by most grammarians ; but we will observe here, that, in fact, 
the imperative mood has no third person. When the verb is used in 
that person, the proposition is elliptical, there is another verb under- 
stood, and what is called the third person of the imperative is in 
reality that of the subjunctive mood. 

Let us go into the country. Allons a la campagne. 

Come and see me to-morrow. Venez me voir demain. 

Let him go into the city. Qu'il aille a la ville. 

Let the children go to walk. Que les enfants aillent se promener. 

When the imperative sentence is negative, the negative words, ne, 
pas, are placed as in interrogative sentences ; as in, 

Do not go into the country. N'allez pas a la campagne. 

Do not let him go out, I forbid it. Ne le laissez pas sortir, je le defends. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 497 

The construction which we have mentioned in sentences, either 
affirmative, interogative, or imperative, is called direct or regular, 
because the words are placed in the order in which they should be, to 
satisfy the wants of the mind ; but this order is sometimes altered, in 
order to give the style more force, more rapidity or elegance. The 
construction is then called irregular, and the transformations which it 
has to suffer are called figures. The construction may be figurative 
in several ways, the principal of which are called inversion, ellipsis, 
pleonasm, and syllepsis ; the others are not exactly within the province 
of grammar. 

OF INVERSION. 

1031. Inversion is the transposition of a word or of a proposition 
into a place different from that which is ordinarily assigned to it. 

An inversion must never affect the clearness of a sentence, and 
should be used only to introduce more perspicuity, energy, or har- 
mony into the language. 

Let us examine what are the different ways which usage has intro- 
duced and grammar has sanctioned in the inversion of sentences. 

1032. 1st. The verb is very well placed before the noun which 
governsjt as its nominative ; as in 

Tout ce que lui promet Vamitie des Romains, 

instead of 

Tout ce que l'amitie des Roinains lui promet. 

Monsieur de Turenne fait voir tout ce que peut, pour la defense d'un royaume, 
un general d'armee qui s'est rendu digne de commander, 

instead of 

Monsieur de Turenne fait voir tout ce qu'un general d'armee, qui s'est rendu 
digne de commander, peut pour la defense d'un royaume. 

1033. 2d. The verb may be placed after its object, governed by 
the preposition de, of; as in, 

C'est d'un homme veritablement iclaire que je vous parle, 

instead of 

Je vous parle d'un homme veritablement Sclaire. 

D'une voix plaintive il s'ecria, 
42* 



498 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

instead of 

II s'£cria d'une voix plaintive. 

1034. 3d. The verb may be preceded by its object governed by the 
preposition &, to ; as in, 

A tant dHnjures, qu'avez-vous a repondre 1 

instead of 

Qu'avez-vous a repondre a tant d'injures 1 

Sans doute a ce discours, il ne s'attendait pas, 

instead of 

Sans doute il ne s'attendait pas a ce discours. 

But the verb can never be preceded by its direct object. One of 
our old poets has committed a fault in writing : 

Par mille inventions, le public on depouille, 
On doit cueillir le fruit et non Varbre arracher. 

1035. 4th. Several prepositions, as apres, dans, par, sous, contre, 
followed by their complement, are elegantly placed before the verb ; 
as in, 

Apres ses prieres accoutumees, elle s'abaissait jusqu'au neant, 
instead of 

Elle s'abaissait jusqu'au neant apres ses prieres accoutumees. 

Dans un tel etat de faiblesse, que pouvait elle entreprendre 1 
instead of 

Que pouvait elle entreprendre dans un tel etat de faiblesse 1 

Par la hi du corps, je tiens a ce monde qui passe, et par lafoi, je tiens a Dieu qui 
ne passe point, 

instead of 

Je tiens a ce monde qui passe, par la loi du corps, et je tiens a Dieu qui ne passe 
point, par la foi. 

Contre des assavis si violents, il n'employait que la patience, 

instead of 

II n'employait que la patience contre dea assauts si violents. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 499 

1036. 5th. Finally, we may properly place before the principal 
sentence the conjunctions, quand, parceque, puisque, d'autant plus 
que, quoique, lorsque, &c, with the proposititions governed by them ; 
as in, 

Puisqu'il le veut, qu'il le fasse, 
instead of 

Qu'il le fasse puisqu'il le veut. 
Tout austere que parait la vertu, elle n'en est pas moins attrayante, 
instead of 

La vertu n'en est pas moins attrayante, tout austere qu'elle paraisse. 

We see, by what precedes, that inversions are used both in prose 
and poetry, but they must always be employed with care ; they must 
never destroy the clearness of style, but should be calculated to intro- 
duce into it rapidity, harmony, and force. 

OP THE ELLIPSIS. 

1037. The ellipsis is the omission of one or several words necessary 
to render the construction complete. 

For an ellipsis to be proper, it is necessary that the mind should be 
able to supply, without trouble, the word or words which have been 
omitted. 

An ellipsis is faulty whenever it creates obscurity, confusion, or 
ambiguity. 

The introduction of this figure into language is the result of the 
want which man feels to shorten the mode of expressing his ideas ; 
by using the ellipsis, the speech becomes more rapid, more concise, 
is more graceful and harmonious. 

An ellipsis may be more or less striking ; it is hardly perceived in 
the following sentence : 

Puissiez-vous etre heureux ! 
which is used instead of 

Je souhaite que voue puissiez etre heureux. 



instead of 



500 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

It is more apparent in the answer to this phrase ; as, 

Quand viendrez-vous % Demain, 
instead of 

Je viendrai demain. 
The following sentences are elliptical : 

Nous ferons la moisson a la wt-aoufc, 
instead of 

d la moitie du mois d'aout. 
Que vous a-t-il repondu 1 Rien, 

1/ ne m'a rien ripondu. 

Corneille has made an admirable use of the ellipsis in the following 
sentences. Medee is asked : 

Que vous reste-t-il 1 Moi, answers she. 

This word moi, instead of je me reste, is sublime. In another part, 
Prussias, addressing Nicomedus, tells him : 

Et que dois-je etre 1 Roi, replies Nicomedus. 

This single word, Roi, expresses the whole. These two admira- 
ble passages should not exist without the use of the ellipsis. 

The ellipsis, then, as we have already stated, is the omission of one 
or several words, or even of a whole phrase ; but the following rule 
should be observed : 

1038. An ellipsis ought to be so constructed that the listener 
should not be able to perceive that there are words omitted in what 
he hears ; and, besides, it should be consecrated by usage. 



OP PLEONASM. 

1039. The word Pleonasm comes from the Greek, and signifies 
redundancy. 

Pleonasm, as a figure, consists in the use of a word or words which 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 501 

could be dispensed with without altering materially the meaning of 
the sentence. 

A pleonasm, to be proper, must be authorized by usage ; and usage 
authorizes it only where it gives more energy to the expression, or 
shows more distinctly the feelings of the speaker. 

Hence there are two sorts of pleonasm : one resulting from the 
construction of the sentence ; the other, from an impulse of the soul. 

1040. We make a pleonasm of the first kind, when we insert in 
the sentence a word, or some words, which are unnecessary to com- 
plete its meaning ; as, que, moi, vous, meme, en, &c, without which 
the phrase would be sufficiently clear ; as in the following : 

Avant que de parler, prenez moi ce mouchoir. 
Faites les moi les plus laids que l'on puisse. 
II vous la prend et l'emporte. 
J'irai moi-meme. C'est \ui-meme. 
Je vi'en retourne ; il s'en va. 

These modes of expression should be admitted, because usage 
consecrates them, although they contain useless words, sometimes 
arranged in a manner which is not regular. 

1041. The second sort of pleonasm is of greater importance in the 
expression of our thoughts ; it corresponds with the impulse of our 
soul, and gives more power and energy to the style. It generally 
consists in the repetition of a word, or in the addition of a word having 
the same meaning as another preceding it, but restraining or extend- 
ing its signification ; as in the following : 

S'il ne veut pas vous le dire, je vous le dirai, moi. 

II lui appartient bien a lui de parler coinme il fait. 

Je l'ai entendu de mes propres oreilles. 

Et que ra'a fait a moi cette Troie ou je cours. 

C'est a vous a sortir, vous qui parlez. 

Je l'ai vu, dis-je, vu, de mes propres yeux vu, ce que l'on appelle vu 

Et je ne puis du tout me mettre dans l'esprit 

Qu'il ait ose tenter les choses que l'on dit. 

All these pleonasms are authorized by usage, and taste admits 
them ; because they possess some of the qualities which belong to this 
figure. 

But usage rejects all those which are the mere repetition of an 
idea, and which, instead of giving grace or force to the style, render 
it heavy and flat ; as in, 

SVtfregorger les uns les autres. 
Engagements reciproques de part et d'autre. 
Cadavres inanim4s. Tempete orageuse. 



502 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The following is a pleonasm of the same kind, frequently used : 

Dans le principe, pour deconcerter et faire trembler les factieux, on n'aurait 
eu seulement qu'a se montrer. 

Seulement is useless, being already expressed by ne que. 



OF SYLLEPSIS. 

1042. Syllepsis is a figure in which a word relates more to our 
meaning than to the expressions used in a sentence. 
When we say, for instance : 

II est dix heures, 

L'an mil huit cent trente, 

our mind thinks only of the fact itself, and not of the arrangement 
of words used to express that fact ; thus, il is in the masculine gen- 
der, although heure is feminine ; an is in the singular number, although 
referring to more than one year. 

Je crains qu'il ne vienne. 
J'empecherai qu'il ne se tue. 
J'ai peur qu'il ne meure. 

In these sentences, the word ne is not used negatively, but, as we 
wish exceedingly that the events expressed by the last verb may not 
take place, we are willing to do anything to prevent them, and the 
negative ne is introduced to show that disposition of our mind ; we 
should be equally well understood without it, but usage requires it to 
be preserved. 

There is an elegant syllepsis in the following lines of Racine : 

Entre le peuple et vous, vous prendrez Dieu pour juge ; 
Vous souvenant, mon fils, que cache sous ce lin, 
Comme eux vous futes pauvre et comme eux orphelin. 

Carried away by his feelings, the poet forgets that he has used the 
word peuple in the singular ; and, impressed with an idea of plurality, 
he makes the pronoun eux agree with the idea in his mind, which 
then regarded the pauvres and orphelins existing among the people. 

For the same reason, Bossuet and Mezongui have said : 

Quand le peuple Hebreux entra dans la terre promise, tout y celebrait leurs 

anc£tres. 
Moise eut recours au Seigneur et lui dit : Que ferai-je a ce peuple 1 Bientot 

Us me lapideront. 

Leurs and Us stand for les Hebreux. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 503 



OF GRAMMATICAL DISCORDANCES. 



1043. Grammatical discordances consist in the arrangement of 
words contrary to the rules of the language. 

There are two principal sorts of discordances : one merely called 
Discordance ; the other called Amphibology. 



OP DISCORDANCES. 

1044. There is a discordance in language, whenever the words 
used in the formation of sentences do not agree with each other, 
either because their construction is contrary to analogy, or because 
they connect together dissimilar ideas, between which the mind per- 
ceives an opposition, or cannot see a sufficient affinity. 

We will give several examples to illustrate this definition : 

Notre reputation ne depend pas des louanges qu'on nous donne, mais des actions 
louables que nous faisons. 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb dependre, being used 
negatively in the first proposition, cannot govern the second, which is 
affirmative. It should be : 

Our reputation depends, not upon the Notre reputation depend, non des lou- 

praises which are bestowed on us, anges qu'on nous donne, mais des 

but upon the praiseworthy actions actions louables que nous faisons. 
which we perform. 

1045. The most common discordances are those which arise from 
the wrong use of tenses, as in the following sentence : 

II regarde votre malheur comme une juste punition du peu de complaisance que 
vous avez eu pour lui dans le temps qu'il vous pria de lui rendre service; 

because the two preterites, definite and indefinite, cannot agree 
together. It should be : 

II regarde votre malheur comme une juste punition du peu de complaisance que 
vous elites pour lui dans le temps qu'il vous^n'a de lui rendre service. 

There is also a discordance in the following sentence : 

On en ressentit autant de joie que d'une victoire complete dans un autre temps; 

because the verb which is understood in the second sentence, estab- 
lishing a comparison with the first, ought to be in the conditional 



504 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

past, whereas, the verb of the first proposition is in the preterite 
definite, and, therefore, cannot be omitted. It should be : 

On en ressentit autant de joie qu'on en aurait ressenti d'une victoire complete. 

The following verse of Racine is also incorrect : 

Le flc-t qui Yapporta recule epouvante ; 

because the form of the present cannot agree with that of the preterite 
definite. It should be : 

Le flot qui l'apporta recula 6pouvant6 



OF AMPHIBOLOGIES. 

1046. There is an amphibology in a sentence, when it may receive 
two different interpretations ; this fault must be carefully avoided, 
for, as we speak or write only to be understood, perspicuity is the 
most essential quality in language. 

An amphibology is occasioned by the wrong use of moods or tenses 
in the verbs, of the personal pronouns il, le, la, &c, of the possessive 
pronouns son, sa, ses, &c, or by giving a wrong place to nouns. 



EXAMPLES. 

1047. Of an amphibology of the first kind : 

Qu'ai-je fait pour venir accabler en ces lieux 
Un heros sur qui seul j'ai pu tourner les yeux 1 

Pour venir forms an amphibology, on account of the use of the 
infinitive with the conjunction four when that infinitive cannot have 
the same nominative as that of the first verb ; we do not know, here, 
whether venir relates to the person who speaks or to the person 
spoken to ; therefore, the subjunctive should be used with que; as in, 

Qu'ai-je fait pour que vous veniez, &c. 

1048. Of an amphibology of the second kind : 

Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses de Crassus 
lui firent croire qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de ces deux grands hommes. 

There is an amphibology in this sentence, because we do not see 
clearly to whom relate the pronouns il and lui of the second propo- 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 505 

sition. They seem to refer to Cesar; whereas, in fact, they relate 
to Crassus. It should be : 

Cesar voulut premierement surpasser Pompee ; les grandes richesses de Crassus 
firent croire a ce dernier qu'il pourrait partager la gloire de ces deux grands 
hommes. 

1049. Of an amphibology of the third kind : 

Valere alia chez Leandre ; il y trouva son fils. 

There is an amphibology in this sentence, because we do not see 
what noun the pronoun son relates to ; we do not perceive whether 
Valere found his own son, or the son of Leandre. 

Of an amphibology of the fourth kind : 

J'ai envc-ye les lettres que j'ai ecrites a la poste. 

A la poste, placed at the end of the sentence, creates an amphi- 
bology, because we do not know at once whether the letters have 
been written at the post-office, or merely sent there, after having been 
written somewhere else. 



OF GALLICISMS. 

1050. There are several sorts of Gallicisms ; some result from the 
introduction into writing of expressions no longer in use ; others con- 
sist in irregularities and deviations from the customary rules of the 
language ; some, also, consist in mere ellipses, while others can only 
be attributed to the caprice of custom. 

The three kinds of Gallicisms mentioned last are called Gallicisms 
of Construction, and are the only ones of which we shall speak here. 

1051. The Gallicism of construction, which destroys the clearness 
of a sentence, ought to be avoided. We should admit only those 
which, consecrated by long usage, do not affect perspicuity, or intro- 
duce such irregularities of construction as to offend the rules of 
grammar. 

According to this principle, we should not say now : 

Et qu'ainsi ne soit, 

instead of 

Ce que je vous dis est si vrai que, &c. ; 
43 



506 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

because it destroys the clearness of the sentence, as in the following : 

J'etais dans ce jardin, et qu'ainsi ne soit, voila une fleur que j'y ai cueillie, 
that is to say, and as a proof of it, 

Voila une fleur, &c. 

This expression has not been used since the time of Molie're and 
La Fontaine. 

1052. One of the most common Gallicisms is that in which the 
impersonal verb il y a, there is, is used instead of il est, it is, or il 
existe, it exists, as in the following : 



instead of 



instead of 



Il y avait une fois un roi, 

II etait une fois un roi. 
// y a cent a parier contr'un, 



Cent sont a parier contr'un. 
There are two Gallicisms in this sentence : 

II n'y a pas jusqu'aux enfants qui ne s'en melent. 

1053. The verb falloir forms a Gallicism with the pronoun en, 
when it is conjugated in the reflective form, with the double pronouns 
il, se ; as in, 

11 s'en faut, il s'en fallait, &c. 

It then means, to be wanting ; and, when preceded by an adverb of 
quantity, the pronoun il is omitted; as in, 

Peu s'en faut, tant s'en faut. 

The several modes of using the verb falloir, to be necessary, will 
be found in the following sentences : 

He is far from being so clever as he II s'en faut bien qu'il soit aussi habile 

thinks. qu'il croit l'£tre. 

He was very near failing in that under- Peu s'en est fallu qu'il n'ait succombe 

taking. dans cette entreprise. 

He was as near as possible beinar II ne s'en est presque rien fallu qu'il n'ait 

killed. ete tue. 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 



507 



You say it wants twenty pounds to 
complete the sum ; but you are mis- 
taken, it cannot want so much. 

His cold is entirely well, or very nearly 

so. 
How near quarrelling were these two 

friends 1 
I am not satisfied with your application 

to study ; far from it. 
So far from this play pleasing me, I 

think it insufferable. 

I was far from approving your conduct 
on that occasion. 



Vous dites qu'il s'en faut vingt livres 
que la somme entiere n'y soit; mais 
vous vous trompez, il ne peut s'en 
falloir tant. 

Son rhume est entierement gueri, ou 
peu s'en faut. 

Que s'en est-il fallu que ces deux amis 
ne soient brouilles 1 

Je ne suis pas content de votre appli- 
cation a l'etude, tant s'en faut. 

Tant s'en faut que cette comedie me 
plaise, elle me semble au contraire 
detestable. 

II s'en fallait beaucoup que je vous ap- 
prouvasse dans cette circonstance. 



The following sentences are also Gallicisms : 

He is far from being generous. II n'est rien moins que genereux. 

You may say what you please, but, &c. Vous avez beau dire, mais, &c. 

By what I can see, or as the matter A ce qu'il me semble. 

appeal's to me. 

Here we are lamenting. Nous voila a nous lamenter. 

What wretched beings we are ! Qu'est ce que de nous ! 

1054. Many Gallicisms arise from the use of the preposition en; 
some of this kind will be found in the following expressions : 

Whom are you angry with 1 whom do A qui en avez-vous 1 

you want to speak to % 
What does he aim at 1 what would he Ou en veut-il venir 1 

be at! 
He is angry with him. II lui en veut. 

The conjunction que also produces a great number of Gallicisms ; 



Gambling is a terrible passion. 

It is vain, then, that I work. 

That is not too much. 

There is nothing like having courage. 



C'est une terrible passion que le jeu. 
C'est done en vain que je travaille. 
Ce n'est pas trop que cela. 
II n'est que d'avoir du courage. 



Many others arise from the use of the prepositions a, de, dans, 
apres, &c. Foreigners will find in good dictionaries all the neces- 
sary information on this subject. 



QUESTIONS 



1024. What is understood by the grammatical construction of a sentence 1 
1024. How many different forms can a sentence assume in reference to its 
grammatical construction ? 



508 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1025. How is an affirmative sentence generally constructed 1 

1026. When a sentence is composed of two propositions united by a conjunc- 
tion, which should come first when they are of the same length 1 

1026. Which should come first if the two propositions are not of the same 
extent 1 

1027. What is a sentence called when it is composed of more than two propo- 
sitions 1 

1027. For a period to be elegant, how should the several propositions which 
compose it be disposed 1 

1027. How many propositions, at the most, can enter into the formation of a 
period 1 

1028. What difference is there between the construction of affirmative and 
negative sentences 1 

1029. By what words can an interrogative sentence begin 1 (Here the 
teacher should ask the same questions as have already been given when speaking 
of the relations existing between the verb and its nominative in interrogative 
sentences.) 

1130. By what part of speech do imperative sentences always begin 1 
1130. Is there any third person, either singular or plural, in the imperative 
mood 1 

1030. To what mood belongs, in fact, a verb said to be in the third person 
of the imperative 1 

1030. How can a verb be in the subjunctive mood, which is not preceded by 
another verb governing that mood 1 

1030. By what privilege in language can the order we have already estab- 
lished in the arrangement of sentences be altered 1 

1030. What are the principal figures used in language 1 

1031. What is called an inversion as a figure in language 1 
1031. For what purpose are inversions used in language 1 

1031. On what condition can the construction of a sentence be inverted 1 

1032. Can the verb sometimes be placed before its nominative 1 (Give an 
example.) 

1033. 1034. Can the verb be preceded by its object governed either by the 
preposition de or d? 

1034. Can the verb ever be preceded by its direct object when that object is 
a noun 1 (Give an example of a wrong sentence of this kind.) 

1035. Cannot the prepositions apres, dans, par, sous, and contre, followed by 
their object, be placed before the verb 1 (Give examples.) 

1036. Cannot the conjunctions quand, parceque, puisque, &c, followed by the 
proposition governed by them, be placed before the principal proposition in a 
sentence 1 (Give examples.) 

1037. What is the figure called ellipsis ? 

1037. On what condition can a sentence be elliptical '? 

1037. For what purpose are ellipses used in language 1 (The pupils should 
give examples of the several kinds of ellipses given in the grammar.) 

1038. How should an ellipsis be constructed so as to be authorized by good 
language 1 

1039. What is the signification of the word pleonasm? In what does this 
figure consist 1 

1039. When is a pleonasm properly used 1 How many kinds of pleonasms 
are there in language 1 What are they 1 

1040. What do we understand by a pleonasm resulting from the construction 
of a sentence 1 (Give examples.) 

1041. What do we understand by a pleonasm resulting from an impulse of 
the soul 1 (Give examples.) 

1041. Is a pleonasm legitimate when it merely consists in the repetition of 
the same idea expressed in different words % (Give examples of unauthorized 
pleonasms.) 

1042. In what does the figure called syllepsis consist 1 (The pupils should 



GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION. 509 

analyze the sentences given in the grammar, and show in what consist the syl- 
lepses which they contain.) 

1043. What is understood in grammar by the expression grammatical dis- 
cordances ? How many kinds of discordances are there 1 and what are they 
called 1 

1044. When can we say that there is a discordance in a sentence 1 (Give 
examples, and show where the discordance is.) 

1045. What is the most common kind of discordances 1 (Give examples in 
order to show where die discordance is, and how the sentence should be regu- 
larly constructed.) 

1046. When can we say that there is an amphibology in a sentence 1 

1046. What can be the cause of an amphibology 1 

1047, 1048, 1049. (The pupils should give examples of the three kinds of 
amphibologies, show in what they consist, and how the sentences should be 
constructed in order to avoid them.) 

1050. What is a Gallicism % How many kinds of Gallicisms are there % 

1050. In what do they consist, and what are they called 1 

1051. On what condition is a Gallicism permitted in good language 1 

1052. How is the expression il y a called a Gallicism 1 (Give examples.) 

1053. In what case does the verb falloir form a Gallicism % (The pupils 
should learn by heart the several examples of Gallicisms formed by the verb fal- 
loir, as well as those which follow in the grammar.) 

1054. Are not many Gallicisms formed with the preposition en, and the con- 
junction que 1 . (Give the examples in the grammar.) 

1055. Where will foreigners find all the necessary information in reference 
to Gallicisms 1 

43* 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



1055. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERB TO HAVE, 
IN ITS FOUR DIFFERENT FORMS. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 









PRESENT. 


to have 






not to have 


avoir. 






ne pas avoir, n'avoir 
pas. 

PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 


having 






not having 


ayant. 






n'ayant pas. 

PARTICIPLE PAST. 


had 








eu, eue, 


eus, 


eues. 





COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

to have had not to have had 

avoir eu. n'avoir pas eu. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

having had not having had. 

ayant eu. n'ayant pas eu, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. Negative and Inter- 

rogative. 
I have, &c. I have not, &c. have 1 1 &c. have I not 1 &c. 

j'ai je n'ai pas a i-j e n'ai-je pas 

tu as tu n'as pas as-tu n'as-tu pas 

il or elle a il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or a-t-elle n'a-t-il or n'a-t-elle 

pas 






AVOIR, TO HAVE. 



511 



nous avons 
vous avez 
ils or elles ont. 



nous n avons pas 
vous n'avez pas 
ils or elles n'ont 
pas. 



avons-nous n avons-nous pas 

avez-vous n'avez-vous pas 

ont-ils or ont-elles ! n'ont-ils or n'ont- 
elles pas ! 



IMPERFECT. 



I had, &c. 

j'avais 

tu avais 

il or elle avail 



nous avions 
vous aviez 
ils or elles avaient. 



I had not, &c. 

je n'avais pas 
tu n'avais pas 
il or elle n'avait 



pas 
nous n'avions pas 
vous n'aviez pas 
ils or elle; 

aient pas 



had 1 ! &c. 

avais-je 
avais-tu 
avait-il or elle 

avions-nous 
aviez-vous 



had I not 1 &c. 

n'avais-je pas 
n'avais-tu pas 
n'avait-il or elle pas 

n'avions-nous pas 
n 'aviez-vous pas 



av- avaient-ils or elles 1 n'avaient-ils or 
elles pas ! 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 



I had, &c. 



had not, &c. 



had 1 1 &c. 



had I not 1 &c. 



jeus 

tu eus 

il or elle eut. 

nous eumes 

vous eutes 

ils or elles eurent. 



je n eus pas eus-je 

tu n'eus pas eus-tu 

il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle 

nous n'eumes pas eumes-nous 

vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous 



n eus-je pas 
n 'eus-tu pas 
n'eut-il or elle pas 
n'eumes-nous pas 
n'eutes-vous pas 



ils n'eurent pas. eurent-ils or elles ! n'eurent-ils pas 



I have had, &c. 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have not had, &c. have I had ! &c. 



have I not had! &c. 



j'ai eu je n ai pas eu ai-je eu 

tu as eu tu n'as pas eu as-tu eu 

il or elle a eu il or elle n'a pas eu a-t-il or elle eu 

nous avons eu nous n 'avons pas eu avons-nous eu 

vous avez eu vous n'avez pas eu avez-vous eu 

ils or elles ont eu. ils or elles n'ont pas ont-ils or elles eu 



n'ai-je pas eu 
n' as-tu pas eu 
n'a-t-il or elle pas 

eu 
n'avons-nous pas eu 
n'avez-vous pas eu 
n'ont-ils or elles pas 

eu! 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had had, &c. 

j'avais eu 

tu avais eu 

il or elle avait eu 

nous avions eu 

vous aviez eu 



I had not had, &c. had I had ! &c. had I not had! &c. 



je n avais pas eu avais-je eu 

tu n'avais pas eu avais-tu eu 

il or elle n'avait pas avait-il or elle eu 

eu 

nous n'avions pas avions-nous eu 

eu 

vous n'aviez pas eu aviez-vous eu 



ils or elle3 avaient ils or elles n'avaient avaient-ils 
eu. pas eu. eu ! 



n avais-je pas eu 
n'avais-tu pas eu 
n'avait-il or elle pas 

eu 
n'avions-nous pas 

eu 
n'aviez-vous pas eu 



elles n'avaient-ils or elles 
pas eu! 



512 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had had, &c. 

j'eus eu 

tu eus eu 

il or elle eut eu 

nous eumes eu 

vous eutes eu 

ils or elles eurent eu 



had not had, &c. had I had 1 &c. had I not had *? &c. 



je n'eus pas eu eus-je eu 

tu n'eus pas eu eus-tu eu 

il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle eu 

eu. 

nous n'eumes pas eumes-nous eu 

eu 

vous n'eutes pas eu eiites-vous eu 

ils or elles n'eurent eurent-ils or elles 

pas eu. eu 1 



n'eus-je pas eu 
n'eus-tu pas eu 
n'eut-il or elle pas 

eu 
n'eumes-nous pas 

eu 
n'eutes-vous pas eu 
n 'eurent-ils or elles 

pas eu 1 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will have, I shall or wil 
&c. have, &c. 



shall or will I have 1 shall or will I not 
&c. have'? &c. 



j aurai 

tu auras 

il or elle aura 

nous aurons 

vous aurez 

ils or elles auront. 



je iv aurai pas aurai-je 

tu n'auras pas auras-tu 

il or elle n'aura pas aura-t-il or elle 

nous n'aurons pas aurons-nous 

vous n 'aurez pas aurez-vous 

ils or elles n'auront auront-ils or elles 1 
pas. 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



n aurai -je pas 
n'auras-tu pas 
n'aura-t-il or elle 

pas 
n'aurons-nous pas 
n'aurez-vous pas 
n'auront-ils or elles 

pasl 






I shall or will have I shall or will not shall or will I have shall or will I not 
had, &c. have had, &c. had % &c. have had "? &c. 



j aurai eu 

tu auras eu 

il or elle aura eu 

nous aurons eu 



vous aurez eu 

ils 03 

eu 



je n aurai pas eu aurai-je eu n aurai-je pas eu 

tu n'auras pas eu auras-tu eu n'auras-tu pas eu 

il or elle n'aura pas aura-t-il or elle eu n'aura-t-il or elle 

eu pas eu 

nous n'aurons pas aurons-nous eu n'aurons-nous pas 

eu eu 

vous n'aurez pas eu aurez-vous eu n'aurez-vous pas eu 

or elles n'auront-ils or elles 
pas eu 1 



elles auront ils or elles n'auront auront-ils 
pas eu. eu 1 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, would, I should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might could, or might 
have, &c. not have, &c. I have 1 &c. 



j 'aurai s 

tu aurais 

il or elle aurait 

nous aurions 

vous auriez 

ils or elles auraient, 



je n aurais pas aurais-je 

tu n'aurais pas aurais-tu 

il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle 

pas 
nous n'aurions pas aurions-nous 
vous n'auriez pas auriez-vous 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have 1 &c. 

n'aurais-je pas 
n 'aurais-tu pas 
n'aurait-il or elle 

pas 
n'aurions-nous pas 
n'auriez-vous pas 



ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or dies'? n'auraient-ils or 
raient pas. elles pas 1 



AVOIR, TO HAVE. 



513 



CONDITIONAL PAST. 



I ^hoiilJ, would, 
could, or might 
have ha:. 

j'aurais eu 

tu aurais eu 

il or elle aurait eti 

nous aurions eu 

vous auriez eu 
ils or elles auraient 
eu. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
net have had,&e. 
je n'aurais pas eu 
tu n'aurais pas eu 
il or elle n'aurait 

pas eu 
nous n'aurious pas 

eu 
vous n'auriez pas eu 
ils or elles n'au- 
raient pas eu. 



hould, would, 
could, or might 
I have had 1 &c. 
aurais-je eu 
aurais-tu eu 
aurait-ii or elle eu 



aunons-nous eu 



aunez-vcus eu 
auraient-ils or elles 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have had ! &c. 
n'aurais-je pas eu 
n'aurais-tu pas eu 
n'aurait-il or elle 

pas eu 
n'aurions-nous pas 

eu 
n'auriez-vous pas eu 
n'auraient-ils or 
elles pas eu 1 



DIPERATIVE 3IOOD. 



have, ice. 
aie 
ayons 
avez. 



have uot, &c. 
n'aie pas 
n'ayons pas 
n'ayez pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may have, &c 

que j 'aie 

que tu aies 

qu'il or qu'elle ait 

que nous ayons 

que vous ayez 

qu'ils or qu 'elles aient. 



that I may not have, Sec. 

que je n'aie pas 

que tu n'aies pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas 

que nous n'ayons pas 

que vous n'ayez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aieut pas. 



that I mi^ht have, Si<;. 

que j'eusse 

que tu eusse? 

qu'il or qu'elle eut 

que nous eussions 

que vous eoBS 

qu'ils or qu'elles enssent. 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might not have, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas 

que tu n'eusses pus 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas 

que nous n'eussions pas 

que vous n'eussiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas. 



that I may have had , &c . 

que j 'aie eu 

que tu aies eu 

qu'il or qu'elle ait eu 

que nous ayons eu 

que vous ayez eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient eu. 



that I may not have had, &c. 

que je n'aie pas eu 

que tu n'aies pas eu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas eu 

que nous n'ayons pas eu 

que vous n'ayez pas eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas eu. 



514 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



that I might have had, &c. 

que j'eusse eu 

que tu eusses eu 

qu'il or qu'elle eut eu 

que nous eussions eu 

que vous eussiez eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent eu. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that 



light not have had, &c. 



que je n'eusse pas eu. 

que tu n'eusses pas eu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas eu. 

que nous n'eussions pas eu 

que vous n'eussiez pas eu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas eu. 



1056. CONJUGATION OF THE IMPERSONAL VERB, THERE 

TO BE 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



there to be. 
y avoir. 



there not to be 

ne pas y avoir or n'y avoir pas. 



there being 
y ay ant. 



PARTICIPLE PRESENT. 



there not being 
n'y ayant pas. 



there to have been 
v avoir eu. 



PAST OR PERFECT. 

not there to have been 

ne pas y avoir eu, or n'y avoir pas eu. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



there having been 
y ayant eu. 



there not having been 
n'y ayant pas eu. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Affirmative. 



PRESENT. 
Negative. Interrogative. 



there is or there there is not or 

are there are not 

il y a. il n'y a pas. 



is there or are 

there 1 
y a-t-il 1 



Interrogative and 

Negative. 
is there not or are 

there not 1 
n'y a-t-il pas 1 



IMPERFECT. 

there was or there there was not or was there or were was not there or 

were there were not there "? were not there 1 

il y avait. il n'y avait pas. y avait-il 1 n'y avait-il pas 1 



Y AVOIR, THERE TO BE. 



515 



there was or there 

were 
il y eut. 



there has or have 
been 



il y a eu. 



there had been 
il y avait eu. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

there was not or was or were there 1 

there were not 
il n'y eut pas. y eut-il 1 

PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

there has or have has or have there 

not been been 1 

il n'y a pas eu. y a-t-il eu *? 

PLUPERFECT. 

there had not been had there been 1 
il n'y avait pas eu. y avait-il eu 1 

PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



was or were not 

there 1 
n'y eut-il pas 1 



has or have not 

there been 1 
n'y a-t-il pas eu 1 



had not there beenl 
n'y avait-il pas eu 1 



there had been 
il y eut eu. 



there had not been had there been 1 
il n'y eut pas eu. y eut-il eu 1 



had not there been ? 
n'y eut-il pas eu 1 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



there will or shall 

be 
il v aura. 



there will or shall 
have been 



il y aura eu. 



there will or shall will or shall there 

not be be 1 

il n'y aura pas. y aura-t-il 1 

FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

there will or shall shall or will there 

not have been have been 1 

il n'y aura pas eu. y aura-t-il eu 1 



will or shall not 

-there be 1 
n'y aura-t-il pas 1 



shall or will there 
not have been 1 
n'y aura-t-il pas eu 1 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



there would, could, there would, could, would, could, would, could, 
should or might should, or might should, or might should, or might 
be not be there be 1 there not be 1 



il y aurait. 



il n'y aurait pas. y aurait-il \ 



n'y aurait-il pas 



there would, could, there would, could, would, could, would, could, 
should, or might should, or might should, or might should, or might 
have been not have been there have been 1 there not have 

been 1 

il y aurait eu. il n'y aurait pas eu. y aurait-il eu 1 n'y aurait-il paseu 1 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



that there may be 
qu'il y ait. 



that there may not be 
qu'il n'y ait pas. 



516 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



that there might be 
qu'il y eut. 



that there may have been 
qu'il y ait eu. 



that there might have been 
qu'il y eut eu. 



IMPERFECT. 

that there might not be 
qu'il n'y eut pas. 

PRETERITE. 

that there may not have been 
qu'il n'y ait pas eu. 

PLUPERFECT. 

that there might not have been 
qu'il n'y eut pas eu. 



1057. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE, ETRE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Affirmative. 
to be 
etre. 



PRESENT. 

Negative. 
not to be 
ne pas etre. 



being 
etant. 



PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 



not being 
n'etant pas. 



been 
ete. 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 



to have been 
avoir ete. 



having been 
avant ete. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

not to have been 
n'avoir pas ete. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

not having been 
n'ayant pas ete. 



Affirmative. 

I am, &c. 
je suis 
ru es 
il or elle est 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 
Negative. Interrogative 



I am not, &c. 



I'J&c. 



je ne suis pas sms-je 

tu n'es pas es-tu 

il or elle n'est pas est-il or elle 



Negative and In- 
terrogative. 
am I not 1 &c. 
ne suis-je pas 
n'es-tu pas 
n'est-il or elle pas 



ETRE, TO BE. 



517 



nous souimes nous ne sommes pas sommes-nous ne sommes-nous pas 

vous etes vous n'etes pas etes-vous n'etes-vous pas 

ils or elles sont. ils or elles ne sont sont-ils or elles 1 ne sont-ils or elles 
pas. pas % 

IMPERFECT. 



I was, &c. 


I was not, &c. 


was 11 &c. 


was I not 1 &c. 


j'etais 
tu etais 


je n'etais pas 
tu n'etais pas 


etais-je 
etais-tu 


n'etais-je pas 
n'etais-tu pas 


il or elle etait 


il or elle n'etait pas 


etait-il or elle 


n'etait-il or elle pas 


nous etions 


nous n'etions pas 


etions-nous 


n'etions-nous pas 


vous etiez 

ils or elles etaient. 


vous n'etiez pas 
ils or elles n'etaient 


etiez-vous 
etaient-ils or elles 1 


n'etiez-vous pas 
n'etaient-ils or elles 




pas. 




pas 1 




PRETERITE 


DEFINITE. 




I was, &c. 


I was not, &c. 


was 1 1 &c. 


was I not 1 &c. 


je fus 
tu fus 

il or elle fut 
nous fumes 


je ne fus pas 
tu ne fus pas 
il or elle ne fut pas 
nous ne fumes pas 


fus-je 
fus-tu 

fut-il or elle 
fumes-nous 


ne fus-je pas 
ne fus-tu pas 
ne fut-il or elle pas 
ne fumes-nous pas 


vous fntes 

ils or elles furent. 


vous ne futes pas 
ils or elles ne furent 


futes-vous 
furent-ils or elles 1 


ne futes-vous pas 
ne furent-ils or elles 



pas 



I have been, &c. 

j'ai ete 

tu as ete 

il or elle a ete 

nous avons ete 

vous avez ete 

ils or elles ont ete. 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have not been, &c have I been 1 &c. 



have I not been 1 ? 
&c. 



je n'ai pas ete fii-je ete 

tu n'as pas ete as-tu ete 

il or elle n'a pas ete a-t-il or elle ete 



nous n avons pas ete ayons-nous ete 
vous n'avez pas ete avez-vous ete 
ils or elles n'ont pas ont 
ete. 



n ai-je pas ete 
n'as-tu pas ete 
n'a-t-il or elle pas 

ete 
n'avons-nous pas ete 
n 'avez-vous pas ete 
or elles ete 1 n'ont-ils or elles pas 

etel 



I had been, &c. 
j'avais ete 
tu avais ete 
il or elle avait ete 



nous a v ions ete 



vous aviez ete 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had not been, &c. had I been 1 &c. 

je n'avais pas ete avais-je ete 

to n'a-vais pas ete avais-tu ete 

il or elle n'avait pas avait-il or elle ete 

ete 

nous n'avions pas avions-nous ete 

ete 

vous n'aviez pas ete aviez-vous ete 



il« or elles avaient ils or elles n'avaient avaient-ils or elles 
ete. pas ete. ete 1 



had I not been 1 &c. 
n'avais-je pas ete 
n'avais-tu pas ete 
n'avait-il or elle pas 

ete 
n'avions-nous pas 

ete 
n'aviez-vous pas ete 
n'avaient-ils or elles 

pas ete 1 



I had been, &c. 
j'eus ete 
ut eus etc 

■ eut ete 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had not been, &c. had I been 1 &c. 

je n'eus pas ete eus-je ete 

tu n'eus pas ete eus-tu ete 

il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle ete 

ete 

44 



had I not been 1 &c. 
n'ens-je pas ete 
n'eus-tu pas et6 
n'eut-il or elle pas 
ete 



518 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous eumes ete nous n'eumes pas eumes-nous ete n'eumes-nous pa& 

ete ete 

vous eutes ete vous n'eutes pas ete eutes-vous ete n'eutes-vous pas ete 

ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eurent eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ils or elles 

ete. pas ete. ete % pas ete 1 « 



FUTURE PRESENT. 



be, 



I shall or wi 

&c. 
je serai 
tu seras 
il or elle sera 

nous serons 

vous serez 

ils or elles seront. 



I shall or will not 
be, &c. 



shall or will I be 1 shall or will I not 
&c. bel&c. 



je ne serai pas serai-je 

tu ne seras pas seras-tu 

il or elle ne sera pas sera-t-il 



elle 



nous ne serons pas serons-nous 

vous ne serez pas serez-vous 

ils or elles ne seront seront-ils or elles 1 
pas. 



ne serai -je pas 
ne seras-tu pas 
ne sera-t-il or elle 

pas 
ne serons-nous pas 
ne serez-vous pas 
ne seront-ils or elles 

pas 1 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will have 

been, &c. 
j'aurai ete 
tu auras ete 
il or elle aura ete 

nous aurons ete 

vous aurez ete 
ils or elles auront 
ete. 



I shall or will not 

have been, &c. 
je n'aurai pas ete 
tu n'auras pas ete 
il or elle n'aura pas 

ete 
nous n'aurons pas 

ete 
vous n 'aurez pas ete 
ils or elles n'auront 

pas ete. 



shall or will I have 

been 1 &c. 
aurai-je ete 
auras-tu ete 
aura-t-il or elle ete 

aurons-nous ete 

aurez-vous ete 
auront-ils or elles 
etel 



shall or will I not 

have been 1 &c. 
n'aurai-je pas ete 
n'auras-tu pas ete 
n'aura-t-il or elle 

pas ete 
n'aurons-nous pas 

ete 
n'aurez-vous pas ete 
n'auront-ils or elles 

pas ete % 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not be, &c. 

je ne serais pas 



should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might 
I be 1 &c. I not be 1 &c. 



ns-je 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
be, &c. 
je serais 
tu serais 
il or elle serait 

pas pas 

nous serions nous ne serions pas serions-nous ne serions-nous pas 

vous seriez vous ne seriez pas seriez-vous ne seriez-vous pas 

ils or elles seraient. ils or elles ne se- seraient-ils or elles 1 ne seraient-ils or 

raient pas. elles pas 1 



tu ne serais pas serais-tu 

il or elle ne serait serait-il or elle 



ne serais-je pas 
ne serais-tu pas 
ne serait-il or elle 



FAST. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
have been, &c. 



j'aurais ete 

tu aurais ete 

il or elle aurait ete 



should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might 
I have been 1 &c. I not have been 1 
&c. 



I should, would, 

could, or might 

not have been, 

&c. 

je n'aurais pas ete aurais-je ete n'aurais-je pas ete 

tu n'aurais pas ete aurais-tu ete. n'aurais-tu pas ele 

il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle ete n'aurait-il or elle 

pas ete pas ete 



ETRE, TO BE. 



519 



nous aurions ete nous n'aurions pas aurions-nous ete n'aurions-nous pas 
ete ete 

vous auriez ete vous n'auriez pas auriez-vous ete n'auriez-vous pas 
ete ete 

ils or elles auraient ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or elles n'auraient-ils or 

. ete. raient pas ete. ete 1 elles pas ete 1 



be 
sois 
soyons 
soyez 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

be not 
ne sois pas 
ne soyons pas 
ne soyez pas 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may be, &c. 

que je sois 

que tu sois 

qu'il or qu'elle soit 

que nous soyons 

que vous soyez 

qu'ils or qu'elles soient. 



that I may not be, &c. 

que je ne sois pas 

que tu ne sois pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne soit pas 

que nous ne soyons pas 

que vous ne soyez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne soient ] 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might be, &c. 

que je fusse 

que tu fusses 

qu'il or qu'elle fut 

que nous fussions 

que vous fussiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles fussent. 



that I might not be, &c. 

que je ne fusse pas 

que tu ne fusses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne fit pas 

que nous ne fussions pas 

que vous ne fussiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne fussent pas. 



that I may have been, &c. 

que j'aie ete 

que tu aies ete 

qu'il or qu'elle ait ete 

que nous ayons ete 

que vous ayez ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient ete. 



PRETERITE. 

that I may not have been, &c. 

que je n'aie pas ete 

que tu n'aies pas ete 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas ete 

que nous n'ayons pas ete 

que vous n'ayez pas ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas ete. 



that I might have been, &c. 

que j'eusse ete 

que tu eusse? ete 

qu'il or qu'elle eut ete 

que nous enssions ete 

que vous eussiez ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent ete. 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might not have been, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas ete. 

que tu n'eusses pas ete 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas ete 

que nous n'eussions pas ete 

que vous n'eussiez pas ete 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas ete. 



520 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. 

1058. There are, in French, nearly four thousand regular and five 
hundred irregular verbs. 

Each verb possesses fifteen personal and five impersonal tenses : 
and, every personal tense having six persons, there are in each verb 
ninety-five separate parts differing from each other either in their 
termination or in reference to the several words which enter into their 
formation. 

The conjugation of this mass of verbs, with all their tenses and 
persons, both in their regular and irregular forms, would be an end- 
less task, were they to be learned individually ; but, fortunately, this 
is not the case, and the study of verbs is made comparatively easy by 
adopting certain rules which, showing the relations existing between 
the tenses, reduce to a very small number the primitive ideas appli- 
cable to each case. In order to introduce clearness in this mode of 
learning verbs, we shall treat first of those which are called regular. 

1059. The tenses of the verbs are divided into two classes : those 
of the first class are called primitive ; those of the other, derivative. 

Primitive tenses are those which serve to form the others ; they 
are five in number : 

1st. The present of the infinitive. 

2d. The present participle. 

3d. The past participle. 

4th. The three persons singular of the present of the indicative. 

5th. The preterite definite. 

1060. Derivative tenses are those which are formed from the primi- 
tive. Let us see now which tenses are formed from each of the 
primitive, and how they are formed. 

1061. 1st. From the present of the infinitive are derived the future 
absolute and the conditional present. 

The future absolute is formed from the infinitive by changing r m 
the first and second conjugation, oir in the third, and re in the fourth, 
into : 

rai, 1st person singular ; rons, 1st person plural. 

ras, 2d " " rez, 2d " 

ra, 3d " " ront, 3d " " 

Primitive tense : aimer; finir; recevoirj rendre J 

as in : j'aimera?", &c. je fiuirai, &c. je recevrai, &c. je rendrai, &c. 

1062. The conditional present is formed from the present of the 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. 521 

infinitive by changing the same terminations, r in the first and second 

conjugation, oir in the third, and re in the fourth, into : 

rais, 1st person singular ; rions, 1st person plural. 

rais, 2d " " riez, 2d " " 

rait, 3d " " raient, 3d " " 

Primitive tense : aimer j finirj recevoir; rendre; 

as in : j'aimeraz's, &c. je fining's, &c. je recevraz's, &c. je rendraz's, &c. 

1063. 2d. From the present participle are formed : 

(1.) The three persons plural of the present of the indicative. 
(2.) The imperfect of the indicative. 
(3.) The present of the subjunctive mood. 

1064. (1st.) The three persons plural of the present of the indicative 
are formed from the present participle by changing ant into : 

ons 

ez 

ent. 

Exception. In the third conjugation, the third person plural of the 

present of the indicative is formed by changing evant into oivent ; 

As in, 

Primitive tense : aimani; finissant; recevantj rendant; 

1st person plural, nous aimons, finissons, recevons, renckms, 

2d " " vous aimti, finissez, recevez, rendez, 

3d " " ils sdraent. finissenz 1 . recoztjenz". rendenz*. 

1065. (2d.) The imperfect of the present of the indicative is derived 
from the present participle by changing ant into : 

ais, 1st person singular ; ions, 1st person plural. 

ais, 2d " " iez, 2d " 

ait, 3d " " aient, 2d " " 

as in, 

j'aimaz*, &c. je finissais, &c. je recevazs, &c. je rendaz's, &c. 

1066. (3d.) The present of the subjunctive is derived from the 
present participle by changing ant into : 

e, 1st person singular ; ions, 1st person plural. 

es, 2d " " iez, 2d " 

e, 3d <; " ent, 3d " " 

Exceptions. In the third conjugation, evant should be changed into 

oive, 1st person singular ; evions, 1st person plural. 

oives, 2d " " evicz, 2d " " 

oive, 3d " " oivent, 3d " " 

As in, 

que je aime, &c. que je finisse, &c. que je recoive, &c. que je rende, &c 

44* 



522 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1067. 3d. From the past participle are formed all the compound 
tenses with the auxiliary verbs avoir or etre, according- to the verb 
being either active, passive, or neuter. 

1068. (1st.) The preterite indefinite is composed of the present of 
the verb to have in active verbs, or in neuter verbs conjugated with 
that auxiliary, and the past participle ; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; fini; repuj rendu; 

yai aime, &c. yai fini, &c. j'ai repu, &c. j'ai rendu, &c. 

In neuter verbs conjugated with etre, to be, the preterite indefinite 
is composed of the present of the indicative of that auxiliary and the 
past participle ; as in, 

Primitive tense : tombe, (fallen ; ) sorti, (gone out ; ) cZec/m, (decayed ;) ne,(born;) 
je suis tombe, je suis sorti, je suis dechu, jesuisne, 

&c. &c. &c. &c. 

In passive verbs, the preterite indefinite is composed of the preterite 
indefinite of the verb etre, to be, and the past participle; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; puni; repu; rendu; 

yai ete aime, j'ai ete puni, j'ai ete repu, j'ai ete rendu, 
&c. &c. &c. &c. 

Remark. In reflected verbs, the preterite indefinite is composed of 
the present of the indicative of the verb etre and the past participle, the 
whole being preceded by the reflected pronouns. 

1069. (2d.) The pluperfect is composed of the imperfect of the verb 
avoir in active verbs, and in neuter verbs conjugated with that auxil- 
iary, and the past participle; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; fini; repu; rendu; 

yavais aime, yavais fini, yavais repu, yavais rendu, 
&c. &c. &c. &c. 

In neuter verbs conjugated with etre, the pluperfect is composed of 
the imperfect of the indicative of that auxiliary and the past participle ; 

as in, 

Primitive tense : tombe; sorti; dechu; ne; 

yetais tombe, yetais sorti, yetais dechu, yetais ne, 
&c. &c. &c. &c. 

In passive verbs, the pluperfect is composed of the pluperfect of the 
auxiliary verb etre and the past participle; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; puni; repu rendu; 

yavais ete aime, yavais ete puni, yavais ete repu, yavais ete 
&c. &c. &c. rendu, &c. 

Remark. In refected verbs, the pluperfect is composed of the imper- 






CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. 523 

feet of the verb etre and the past participle, the whole being preceded 
by the reflected pronouns. 

1070. (3d.) The preterite anterior is composed of the preterite 
definite of the verb avoir in active verbs, or in neuter verbs conjugated 
with that auxiliary, and the past participle; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; fini; recu; rendu; 

j'eus aime, &c. yeus fini,&.c. yeus refu, Sac. yeus rendu, &c. 

In neuter verbs conjugated with etre, the preterite anterior is com- 
posed of the preterite definite of that auxiliary and the past participle ; 
as in, 

Primitive tense : tombe; sorti; dechu; ne; 

jef us tombe, Ike. je J 'us sorti, &c. \ej 'us dechu, &c. )efusne, &c. 

In passive verbs, the preterite anterior is composed of the preterite 
anterior of the verb etre and the past participle; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; puni; refu; rendu; 

yeus ete aime, yeus ete puni, yeus ete recu, yeus ete rendu, 
&c. &c. &c. ' &c. 

Remark. In reflected verbs, the preterite anterior is composed of the 
preterite definite of the verb etre and the past participle, both being 
preceded by the reflected pronouns. 

1071. (-4th.) The future past is composed of the future absolute of 
the auxiliary verb to have, avoir, in active verbs, or in neuter verbs 
conjugated with that auxiliary ; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; fini; refu; rendu; 

yaurai aime, yauraifini, yaurai refu, yaurai rendu, 
&c. &c. &c. &c. 

In neuter verbs conjugated with etre, the future past is composed of 
the future absolute of that auxiliary and the past participle; as in, 

Primitive tense : tombe; sorti; dechu; ne; 

je serai tombe, je serai sorti, je serai dechu, je serai ne, 
&c. &c. &c. &c. 

In passive verbs, the future past is composed of the future past of 
the auxiliary verb etre and the past participle; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; puni; refu; rendu; 

yaurai ete aime, yaurai ete puni, yaurai ete repu, yaurai ete 
&c. &c. &c. rendu, &c. 

Remark. In reflected verbs, the future past is composed of the 
future absolute of the verb etre and the past participle, both being pre- 
ceded by the reflected pronouns. 

1072. (5th.) The conditional past is composed of the conditional 



524 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

•present of the auxiliary verb avoir in active verbs, and in neuter verbs 
conjugated with that auxiliary, and the past participle ; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; fini; repuj rendu; 

yaurais aime, yaurais fini, yaurais refu, yaurais rendu, 
&c. &c. * &c. &c. 

In neuter verbs conjugated with etre, the conditional past is composed 
of the conditional present of that auxiliary and the past participle ; 
as in ; 

Primitive tense : tombe; sorti; dechu; ne; 

je serais tombe, je serais sorti, je serais dechu, je serais ne, 
&c. &c. &c. &c. 

In passive verbs, the conditional past is composed of the conditional 
fast of the verb etre and the past participle ; as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; puni; refu; rendu; 

yaurais ete aime, yaurais ete puni, yaurais ete refu, yaurais ete 
&c. &c. &c. rendu, &c. 

Remark. In reflected verbs, the conditional past is composed of the 
conditional present of the verb etre and the past participle, both being 
preceded by the reflected pronouns. 

1073. (6th.) The preterite of the subjunctive is composed of the 
present of the subjunctive of the verb avoir in active verbs, and in 
neuter verbs conjugated with that auxiliary, and the past participle ; 
as in, 

Primitive tense : aime; fini; refu ; rendu; 

que j'afe aime, que yaiefini, que j'aie recu, que yaie rendu, 
&c. &c. &c. ' &c. 

In neuter verbs conjugated with etre, the preterite of the subjunctive 
is composed of the present of the subjunctive of that auxiliary and the 
past participle ; as in, 

Primitive tense : tombe; sorti; dechu; ne; 

qui je sois que je sois que je sois que je sois 

tombe, &c. sorti, &c. dechu, &c. ne, &c. 

In passive verbs, the preterite of the subjunctive is composed of the 
preterite of the subjunctive of the verb etre and the past participle ; as 
in, 

Primitive tense : aime; puni; refu; rendu; 

que yaie ete que yaie ete que yaie ete que yaie ete 
aime, &c. puni, &c. refu, &c. rendu, &c. 

Remark. In refected verbs, the preterite of the subjunctive is com- 
posed of the present of the subjunctive of the verb etre, and the past 
participle, both being preceded by the reflected pronouns. 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. 



525 



1074. ?th. The pluperfect of the subjunctive is composed of the im- 
perfect of the subjunctive of the verb avoir in active verbs, and in 
neuter verbs conjugated with that auxiliary, and the past participle; 
as in, 



Primitive tense : 



anne; 

que yeusse 

aime, &.c. 



fini; 
que 'feusse 
jini, &c. 



recu; 
que yeusse 
recu, &c. 



rendu; 

que yeusse 

rendu, &c. 



In neuter verbs conjugated with etre, the pluperfect of the subjunc- 
tive is composed of the imperfect of the subjunctive of that auxiliary, 
and the past participle; as in, 



Primitive tense : 



tombe; 
qu ^efusse 
tombe, &c. 



que }efusse 
sorti, &c. 



dechu; 
que jefusse 
dechu, &c. 



ne; 
que jefusse 
ne, &c. 



In passive verbs, the pluperfect of the subjunctive is composed of the 
pluperfect of the subjunctive of the verb etre, and the past participle ; 
as in. 



Primitive tense 



aime; 
que yeusse ete 
aime, &c. 



puni; refu; rendu; 

que yeusse ete que yeusse ete que yeusse ete 

puni, &c. repu, &c. rendu, &c. 



Remark. In refected verbs, the pluperfect of the subjunctive is com- 
posed of the imperfect of the subjunctive of the verb etre, and the past 
participle, both being preceded by the reflected pronouns. 

10T5. 4th. From the present of the indicative is derived the impera- 
tive mood, by taking the first person singular, the first and second per- 
son plural, of that tense, and dropping the nominative pronouns ; 
as in, 



Primitive tenses : 


yaime, 


nous aimons, 


vous aimez, 


Imperative : 


aime. 


aimons. 


aimez. 


Primitive tenses : 


je finis, 


nous finissons, 


vous finissez, 


Imperative : 


finis. 


finissons. 


finissez. 


Primitive tenses : 


je repois, 


nous recevons, 


vous recevez, 


Imperative : 


refois. 


recevons. 


recevez. 


Primitive tenses : 


je rends, 


nous rendons, 


vous rendez, 


Imperative 


rends. 


rendons. 


rendez. 



1076. 5th. From the preterite definite is derived the imperfect of 
the subjunctive, by changing the last letter of that tense into, 



sse, 1st person singular. 
sscs, 2d " " 

X 2d " 



ssions, 1st person plural. 
ssiez, 2d " " 

ssent, 3d " " 



526 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Primitive tense: 'faimai, je finis, 

Imperfect of the subjunctive: que j'aimasse, &c. que je finissfi, &c. 

Primitive tense: je re£«s, je rendis, 

Imperfect of the subjunctive: que je recusse, &c. que je rendisse, &c. 

1077. From what has just explained it results : 

1st. That the second person singular, in all tenses, except in the 
imperative mood of the first conjugation, ends with an 5. 

2d. That the third person singular never ends with an s. 

3d. That the first person plural, in all tenses, except in the pret- 
erite definite, ends in ons. 

4th. That the second person plural, in all tenses, except the prete- 
rite definite, ends in ez. 

5th. That the third person plural, in all tenses, except the future 
absolute, ends in ent, ivhich is always mute. 

6th. That the first person of the conditional present differs from the 
same person in the future absolute only by the addition of an s to the 
latter. 

7th. That the termination of the several persons of the conditional 
present only differs from that of the same persons in the imperfect by 
the former beginning with an r, which does not exist in the latter. 

The conjugation of verbs now becomes an easy matter ; it only 
consists in learning the five primitive tenses or parts of tenses, and 
forming all the others according to the rules we have given in this 
chapter. 

These rules have no exceptions in regular verbs ; and they have 
but very few in the irregular ones. 

Experience has taught us, that, by following this method, which, 
after a little training, becomes very easy to the pupils, the study of 
the verbs is rid of its principal difficulty ; the number of primitive 
ideas is reduced almost to nothing in regular verbs, and considerably 
diminished in those which are irregular. 

It would be now sufficient for us to give, in each conjugation, sim- 
ply the primitive tenses, and let the pupils form by themselves the 
several tenses and persons of the derivative ; but, in order to afford 
them an opportunity for ascertaining whether they have made a right 
application of the rules, we shall conjugate, in all their tenses, persons 
and forms, the verbs of the four regular conjugations. As to the irreg- 
ular verbs, we shall only give the primitive tenses, and those which, 
among the derivative, are not regularly formed. 

But we cannot too much recommend to the teachers who may use 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. 



527 



our grammar and plan of instruction, not to be satisfied with a simple 
recitation of the regular verbs, but to exact from their pupils that 
they should state, for each tense, whence it is derived, and how it 
should end. In the series of questions will be found those which 
should be asked for the recitation of each verb. 



QUESTIONS. 



105S. How many regular verbs are there in French 1 How many are irreg- 
ular 1 

105S. How many personal tenses are there in a regular verb 1 How many 
impersonal 1 

1058. How many terminations or different arrangements of words are there 
in the conjugation of a verb in any of its forms 7 . 

1059. Into how many classes are the tenses of a verb divided 1 How are 
the tenses of each class called 1 

1059. How many primitive lenses are there 1 Which are Uiey 1 

1060. What is a derivative tense 1 

1061. Which derivative tenses are formed from the present of the infinitive 1 
1061. How is the future absolute formed from the present of the infinitive in 

the four conjugations 1 

1061. What are the terminations of the future in its several persons 1 

1062. How is the conditional present formed from the present of the infinitive 
in the four conjugations "? 

1062. What are the terminations of the conditional in its several persons 1 
1077. In what does the first person singular of the conditional differ from the 

same person in the conditional 1 

1063. Which derivative tenses are formed from the present participle 1 

1064. How are the three persons plural of the present of the indicative 
formed from the present participle 1 

1064. What are the terminations of the three persons plural in tne present of 
the indicative 1 

1065. How is the imperfect formed from the present participle '? 

1065. What are the terminations of the several persons of the imperfect 
tense 1 

1066. How is the present of the subjunctive formed from the present partici- 
ple 1 

1066. What are the terminations of the several persons of the present of the 
subjunctive 1 

1067. Which are the derivative tenses which are formed from the past parti- 
ciple 1 

1068. What is the preterite indefinite composed of in active verbs, and in 
neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 

1068. What is the preterite indefinite composed of in neuter verbs conjugated 
with it re? 

1068. What is the preterite indefinite composed of in passive verbs 1 

1068. " « " « in reflected verbs % 

1069. What is the pluperfect composed of in active verbs, or in neuter verbs 
conjugated with avoir? 

1069. What is the pluperfect composed of in neuter verbs conjugated with 
etre ? 

1069. What is the pluperfect composed of in passive verbs * 
1( >69- " '« ft in reflected verbs 1 



528 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1070. What is the preterite anterior composed of in active verbs, or in 
neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 

1070. What is the preterite anterior composed of in neuter verbs conjugated 
with etre? 

1070. What is the preterite anterior composed of in passive verbs 1 

1070. " " " « in reflected verbs % 

1071. What is the future past composed of in active verbs, or in neuter verbs 
conjugated with avoir? 

1071. What is the future past composed of in neuter verbs conjugated with 
etre ? 

1071. What is the future past composed of in passive verbs 1 

1071. " " " in reflected verbs 1 

1072. How is the conditional past composed in active verbs, or in neuter 
verbs conjugated with avoir? 

1072. How is the conditional past composed in neuter verbs conjugated with 
etre? 

1072. How is the conditional past composed in passive verbs 1 

1072. '•' " « in reflected verbs 1 

1073. What is the preterite of the subjunctive composed of in active verbs, 
or in neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 

1073. What is the preterite of the subjunctive composed of in neuter verbs 
conjugated with etre. 

1073. What is the preterite subjunctive composed of in passive verbs 1 

1073. " " « in reflected verbs 1 

1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in active verbs, 
or in neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 

1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in neuter verbs 
conjugated with etre? 

1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in passive 
verbs 1 

1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in reflected 
verbs 1 

1075. What is the imperative mood derived from 1 

1076. What is the imperfect of the subjunctive derived from 1 What are the 
several terminations of the imperfect of the subjunctive 1 

1077. What is the last letter of the second person singular in all tenses 1 Is 
there any exception to that rule 1 

1077. What is the letter with which the third person singular never ends 1 

1077. What is the termination of the first person plural in all tenses % Is 
there no exception to this rule 1 

1077. What is the termination of the second person plural in all tenses 1 Is 
there no exception to this rule 1 

1077. What is the termination of the diird person plural in all tenses 1 Is 
there no exception to this rule 1 

1077. In what particular does the first person singular of the conditional 
differ from the same persr.n in the future 1 

1077. In what particular do the several persons of the conditional differ from 
the corresponding persons in the imperfect 1 



A SERIES OF QUESTIONS TO EE ASKED FOR THE CONJUGATION OF 
ANY REGULAR VERB. 

1078. What are the primitive tenses of any verb 1 

1078. What is the present of the infinitive of the verb to love? The present 
participle 1 The past participle 1 

1078. Is the verb aimer an active or a neuter verb 1 



CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. 529 

107S. Why is it an active verb 1 Is it active in speaking of persons and 
things 1 

1078. What are the three persons singular of the present of the indicative of 
the verb aimer? What is the termination in each *? 

1078. What is the preterite definitive of the verb aimer? What is the ter- 
mination of its several persons 1 

1078. What derivative tenses are formed from the present of the infinitive 1 

1078. How is the future absolute derived from the present of the infinitive, 
aimer? 

1078. Recite the future. What are the terminations of its several persons 1 

1078. Knowing the first person singular of the future absolute, what should 
be done to have the same person in the conditional % 

1078. Recite the conditional. What are the terminations of that tense in its 
several persons 1 

1078. In what particular do the several persons of aimer, in the conditional 
present, difl'er from the corresponding persons in the imperfect of the indicative % 

1078. What are the derivative tenses which are formed from the present 
participle of the verb aimer? 

1078. How are the three persons plural of the present of the indicative 
formed from aimant? Recite those three persons. How are they spelled 1 

1078. How is the imperfect of the indicative derived from aimant? Recite 
the imperfect ; spell each person. 

1078. How is the present of the subjunctive derived from aimant? Recite 
the present of the subjunctive. How is it spelled 1 

1078. What derivated tenses are formed from the past participle 1 

1078. What is the preterite indefinite composed of in the active verb aimer? 

1078. " pluperfect " « " " * 

1078. " preterite anterior " 

1078. « future past " 

1078. " conditional past " 

1078. " preterite of the subjunctive 

1078. " pluperfect of the subjunctive 

Recite each of these compound tenses, and spell them. 

1078. What is the imperative mood of the verb aimer derived from 1 Recite 
it, and spell it. 

1078. What is the imperfect of the subjunctive of the verb aimer derived 
from 1 Recite it, and spell it. 



1078. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN BR. 

FIRST CONJUGATION. AIMER. 

1 VFINITIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT. 

to love not to love 

aimer. n'aimer pas, or ne pas aimer. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

loving not loving 

aimant. n'aimant pas. 

45 



530 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 



loved 




aime. 






COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. 


to have loved 


not to have loved 


avoir aime 


n'avoir pas aime. 




COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPI 


having loved 


not having loved 


ayant aime. 


n'ayant pas aime. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT. 
Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. 

I love, &c., or I I love not, &c., or do I love, &c., or 
am loving. I do not love, or am I loving 1 
I am not loving, 

j'aime je n'aime pas aime-je 

tu aimes tu n'aimes pas aimes-tu 

il or elle aime il or elle n'aime pas aime-t-il or elle 

nous aimons nous n'aimons pas aimons-nous 

vous aimez vous n'aimez pas aimez-vous 

ils or elles aiment. ils or elles n'aiment aiment-ils or elles 7 
pas. 



Negative and Inter- 
rogative. 

do I not love 1 &c., 
or am I not lov- 
ing 1 

n'aime-je pas 

n'aimes-tu pas 

n'aime-t-il or elle 
pas 

n'aimons-nous pas 

n'aimez-vous pas 

n'aiment-ils or elles 



IMPERFECT. 



I loved, or I did 
love, or I was 
loving, &c. 



j aimais 

tu aimais 

it or elle aimait 



I loved not, or I did I love, or was did I not love, 



did not love, or 
I was not loving. 
&c. 
je n'aimais pas 
tu n'aimais pas 
il or elle n'aimait 



I loving 1 &c. 



aimais-je 
aimais-tu 
aimait-il or elle 



was I not 
ing 1 &c. 



lov- 



n aimais-je pas 
n'aimais-tu pas 
n'aimait-il or elle 



nous amnions 
vous aimiez 
ils or elles ai- 
raaient. 



nous n aimions pas aimions-nous 

vous n'aimiez pas aimiez-vous 

ils or elles n'ai- aimaient-ils or 

maient pas. elles 1 

PRETERITE DEFINITE. 



n'aimions-nous pas 
n'aimiez-vous pas 
n'aimaient-ils or 
elles pas 1 



loved, or did I loved not, or did did I love 1 &c. 

love, &c. not love, &c. 

je n'aimai pas aimai-je 

tu n'aimas pas aimas-tu 

il or elle n'aima pas aima-t-il or elle 



j aimai 

tu aimas 

il or elle aima 

nous aimames 



nous n aimames pas aimames-nous 



vous aimates vous n'aimates pas aimates-vous 

ils or elles ai- ils or elles n'ai- aimerent-ils or 
me*rent. merent pas. elles 1 



did I not love 1 &c. 



n aimai-je pas 
n'aimas-tu pas 
n'aima-t-il or elle 

pas 
n'aimames-nous 

pas 
n'aimates-vous pas 
n'aimerent-ils or 

olios pas 1 



AIMER, TO LOVE. 



531 



I have loved, &c. 

j'ai aime 

tu as aime 

il or elle a aime 

nous avons aime 

vous avez aime 

ils or elles out aime 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have not loved, have I loved 1 &c. 

&c. 
je n'ai pas aime ai-je aime 
tu n'as pas aime as-tu aime 
il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle aime 

aime 
nous n 'avons pas avons-nous aime 

aime 
vous n'avez pas avez-vous aime 

aime 
ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles 

pas aime. aime 1 



have I not loved 1 

&c. 
n'ai-je pas aime 
n'as-tu pas aime 
n'a-t-il or elle pas 

aime 
n'avons-nous pas 

aime 
n'avez-vous pas 

aime 
n'ont-ils or elles 

pas aime 1 



I had loved, &c. 

j'avais aime 

tu avais aime 

il or elle avait 

aime 
nous avions aime 

vous aviez aime 

ils or elles avaient 
aime. 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had not loved, had I loved ? &c. 

&c. 
je n'avais pas aime avais-je aime 
tu n'avais pas aime avais-tu aime 
il or elle n'avait pas avait-il or elle aime 

aime 
nous n'avions pas avions-nous aime 

aime 
vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous aime 

aime 
ils or elles n'avaient avaient-ils or elles 

pas aime. aime 1 



had I not loved 1 

&c. 
n'avais-je pas aime 
n'avais-tu pas aime 
n 'avait-il or elle pas 

aime 
n'avions -nous pas 

aime 
n'aviez-vous pas 

aime 
n'avaient-ils or 

elles pas aime 1 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had loved, &c. 

j'eus aime 

tu eus aime 

il or elle eut aime 

nous eumes aime 

vous eutes aime 

ils or elles eurent 
aime. 



I had not loved, 

&e. 
je n'eus pas aime 
tu n'eus pas aime 
il or elle n'eut pas 

aime 
nous n'eumes pas 

aime 
vous n'eiltes pas 

aime 
ils or elles n'eurent 

pas aime. 



had I loved, &c. 

eus-je aime 
eus-tn aime 

eut-il or elle aime 

eumes-nous aime 

eiites-vous aime 

eurent-ils or elles 
aime 1 



had I not loved 1 

&c. 
n'eus-je pas aime 
n'eus-tu pas aime 
n'eut-il or elle pas 

aime 
n'eumes-nous pas 

aime 
n'eutes-vous pas 

aime 
n'eurent-ils or elles 

pas aime ? 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will love, 

&c. 
j'aimerai 
tu aimeras 
il or elle aimera 

nous aimerons 

vous aimerez 
ils or elles aime- 
ront. 



I shall or will not 

love, &c. 
je n'aimerai pas 
tu n'aimeras pas 
il or elle n'aimera 

pas 
nous n'aimerons 

pas 
vous n'aimerez pas 
ils or elles n'aiine- 

ront pas. 



shaU or will I love '"? 

&c. 
aimerai-je 
aimeras-tu 
aimera-t-il or elle 

aimerons-nous 

aimerez-vous 
aimeront-ils or 
elles 1 



shall or will I not 

lovel &c. 
n'aimerai-je pas 
n'aimeras-tu pas 
n'aimgra-t-il or elle 

pas 
n'aimerons-nous 

pas 
n'aimerez-vous pas 
n'aimeront-ils or 

elles pas 1 



532 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



I shall or will have 

loved, &c. 
j'aurai aime 
tu auras aime 
il or elle aura aime 

nous aurons aime 

vous aurez aime 

ils or elles auront 
aime 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will not shall or will I have 

have loved, &c. loved 1 &c. 
je n'aurai pas aime aurai-je aime 
tu n'auras pas aime auras-tu aime 
il or elle n'aura pas aura-t-il or elle 

aime . aime 

nous n'aurons pas aurous-nous aime 

aime 
vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous aime 

aime 
ils or elles n'auvont auront-ils or elles 
pas aime. aime ? 



shall or will I not 

have loved 1 &c. 
n'aurai-je pas aime 
n'auras-tu pas aime 
n'aura-t-il or elle 

pas aime 
n'aurons-nous pas 

aime 
n'aurez-vous pas 

aime 
n'auront-ils or elles 



pas aime 



i 1 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, could, 
Mould, or might 
love, &c. 

j'aimerais 

tu aimerais 

il or elle aimerait 

nous aimer ions 
vous aimeriez 



I should, could, 
would, or might 
not love, &c. 
je n'aimerais pas 
tu n'aimerais pas 
il or elle n'aime- 



should, could, 
would, or might 
I love 1 &c. 

aimerais-je 

aimerais-tu 

aimerait-il or elle 



rait pas 
nous n'aimerions aimerions-nous 

pas 
vous n'aimeriez pas aimeriez-vous 



should, could, 
would, or might 
I not love *? &c. 
n'aimerais-je pas 
n'aimerais-tu pas 
n'aimerait-il or elle 



n aimerions-nous 

pas 
n'aimeriez-vous 



ils or elles aime- ils or elles n'aime- 
raient. raient pas. 



aimeraient-ils 
elles 1 



n'aimeraient-i 
elles pas 1 



I should, could, 
would, or might 
have loved, &c. 

j'aurais aime 

tu aurais aime 

il or elle aurait 

aime 
nous aurions aime 

vous auriez aime 

ils or elles auraient 
aime. 



I should, could, 

would, or might 

have not loved, 

&c. 
je n'aurais pas 

aime 
tu n'aurais pas 

aime 
il or elle n'aurait 

pas aime 
nous n'aurions pas 

aime 
vous n'auriez pas 

aime 
ils or elles n'au- 

raient pas aime. 



should, could, 
would, or might 
I have loved 1 
&c. 

aurais-je aime 

aurais-tu aime 

aurait-il or elle 

aime 
aur ions-nous aime 

auriez-vous aime 

auraient-ils or elles 



should, could, 

would, or might 

I not have 

loved 1 &c. 
n'aurais-je pas 

aime 
n'aurais-tu pas 

aime 
n'aurait-il or elle 

pas aime 
n'aurions-nous pas 

aime 
n'auriez-vous pas 

aime 
n'auraient-ils or 

elles pas aime 1 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



love, or do love 
aime 
aimons 
aimez. 



love not, or do not love 
n'aime pas 
n'aimons pas 
a 'aimez pas. 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 533 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may love, &c. 

que j'aime 

que tu a iines 

qu'il or qu'elle aime 

que nous airaions 

que vous aimiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles ainient. 



that I might love, &c. 

que j'ai masse 

que tu aimasses 

qu'il or qu'elle aimat 

que nous aimassions 

que vous aimassiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles aimassent. 



PRESENT. 

that I may not love, &c. 

que je n'aime pas 

que tu n'aimes pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'aime pas 

que nous n'aimions pas 

que vous n'aimiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aiment pas 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might not love, &c. 

que je n'aimasse pas 

que tu n'aimasses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle n'aimat pas 

que nous n'aimassions pas 

que vous n'aimassiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aimassent pas. 



that I may have loved, &c. 

que j'aie aime 

que tu aies aime 

qu'il or qu'elle ait aime 

que nous ayons aime 

que vous ayez aime 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient aime. 



that I may not have loved, &c. 

que je n'aie pas aime 

que tu n'aies pas aime 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas aime. 

que nous n'ayons pas aime 

que vous n'ayez pas aime 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas aime. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have loved, &c. 

que j'eusse aime 

que tu eusses aime 

qn'il or qu'elle eut aime 

que nous eussions aime 

que vous eussiez aime 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent aime. 



that I might not have loved, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas aime 

que tu n'eusses pas aime 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas aime 

que nous n'eussions pas aime 

que vous n'eussiez pas aime 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas aime. 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 
1079. This conjugation has only four irregular verbs ; as in, 



Aller, 
S'en aller, 
Envoyer, 
Renvoyer, 



to go. 

to go away. 

to send. 

to send back. 



All other verbs ending in er are called regular; but several of them 
undergo changes in the orthography of some of their tenses and per- 
sons. These irregularities, which have not been deemed sufficient to 
45* 



534 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



cause these verbs to be classed among the irregular, deserve, how- 
ever, the most careful attention ; because, without a full knowledge 
of them, it is impossible to write or pronounce the language cor- 
rectlv- 



eter 



1080. CONJUGATION OF THE 

eler ger 



to throw 
jeter 



to call 
appeler 



INFINITIVE 

PRES- 



to avenge 
venger 



throwing 
jetant 



calling 
appelant 



avenging 
vengeant 



thrown 
jete 



called 
appele 



avenged 
venge 



I 


throw 


jeorj' 


jette* 


tu 


jettes* 


il or elle 


jette* 


nous 


jetons 


vous 


jetez 


ils or elles 


jettent* 



call 

appelle* 

appelles* 

appelle* 

appelons 

appelez 

appellent* 



INDICATIVE 

PRES- 



venge 

venges 

venge 

vengeons* 

vengez 

vengent 



I 

jeorj' 

tu 

il or elle 

nous 

vous 

ils or elles 



threw 

etais 

etais 

etait 

etions 

etiez 
jetaient 



called 

appelais 

appelais 

appelait 

appelions 

appeliez 

appelaient 



avenged 



vengeais* 

vengeait* 

vengions 

vengiez 

vengeaient* 



tu 

il or elle 



threw or did 

throw 
jetai 
jetas 
jeta 



called or did call 

appelai 
appelas 
appela 



PRETERITE 

avenged or did 

avenge 
vengeai* 
vengeas* 
vengea* 



JETER, ETC. 



535 



The following table will give a complete idea of these irregulari- 
ties. 

The tenses and persons marked with an asterisk are the only ones 
which are irregular. 



VERBS ENDING AS FOLLOWS : 



MOOD. 



yer 



ENT. 








to agree 
agreer 


to pierce 
percer 


to employ 
employer 


to pray 
prier. 


PARTICIPLE. 








agreeing 
agreant 


piercing 
per cant* 


employing 
employant 


praying 
priant. 


PARTICIPLE. 








agreed 
agree 


pierced 
perce 


employed 
employe 


prayed, 
prie. 



MOOD. 



ENT. 

agree 

agree 

agrees 

agree 

agreons 

agreez 

agreent 

FECT. 

agreed 

agreais 

agreais 

agreait 

agreions 

agreiez 

agreaient 

DEFINITE. 

agreed or 

agree 
agreai 
agreas 
agrea 



did 



pierce 


employ 


pray 


perce 


emploie* 


prie 


perces 


emploies* 


pries 


perce 


emploie* 


prie 


percons* 


employons 


prions 


percez 


employez 


priez 


percent 


emploient* 


prient. 


pierced 


employed 


prayed 


percais* 


employais 


priais 


percais* 


employais 


priais 


per^ait* 


employait 


priait 


percions 


employions 


priions 


perciez 


employiez 


priiez 


percaient* 


employaient 


priaient. 


pierced or did 


employed or did 


prayed or did 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


percai* 


employai 


priai 


percas* 


employas 


prias 


per^a* 


omploya 


pria 



536 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous 


jetames 


vous 


jetates 


ils or elles 


jeterent 


I shall or will 


throw 


je or j ' 


jetterai* 


tu 


jetteras* 


il or elle 


jettera* 


nous 


jelterons* 


vous 


jetterez* 


ils or elles 


jetteront* 



lines 
appelates 
appelerent 



call 

appellerai* 

appelleras* 

appellerons* 

appellerons* 

appellerez* 

appelleront* 



vengeames* 
vengeates* 
vengerent 



FUTURE 



avenge 

vengerai 

vengeras 

vengera 

vengerons 

vengerez 

vengeront 



I should, would, 


throw 


could, or might 




J eor j' 


jetterais* 


tu 


jetterais* 


il or elle 


jetterait* 


nous 


jetterions* 


vous 


jetteriez* 


ils or elles 


jetteraient* 



call 

appellerais* 

appellerais* 

appellerait* 

appellerions* 

appelleriez* 

appelleraient* 



CONDITIONAL 

PRES- 

avenge 

vengerais 

vengera is 

vengerait 

vengerions 

vengeriez 

vengeraient 



IMPERATIVE 



throw 
jette* 
jetons 
jetez 



call 

appelle* 
appelons 
appelez 



avenge 
venge 
vengeons* 
vengez 



that I may 

que je or j' 

que tu 

qu'il or qu'elle 

que nous 

que vous 

qu'ils or qu'elles 



throw 
ette* 
ettes* 
ette* 
etions 
etiez 

jettent* 



call 

appelle* 

appelles* 

appelle* 

appelions 

appeliez 

appelient* 



SUBJUNCTIVE 

PRES- 



avenge 

venge 

venges 

venge 

vengions 

vengiez 

Tengent 



that I might 
que je or j' 
que tu 

qu'il or qu'elle 
que nous 
que vous 
qu'ils or ou'ellcs 



throw 
'etasse 

etasses 

etat 

etassions 



call 

appelasse 

appelasses 

appelat 

appelassions 

appelassiez 

appelassent. 



avenge 
vengeasse * 
vengeasses * 
vengeat * 
vengeassions * 
vengeassiez * 
vengeassent * 



JETER, ETC. 



537 



agreames 


pereames* 


employanies 


priames 


agreates 


percates* 


employates 


priates 


agreerent 


percerent 


employment 


prierent. 


PRESENT. 








agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agreerai 


percerai 


emploierai* 


prierai 


agreeras 


perceras 


emploieras* 


prieras 


agreera 


percera 


emploiera* 


priera 


agreerons 


percerons 


emploierons* 


prierons 


agreerez 


percerez 


emploierez* 


prierez 


agreeront 


perceront 


emploieront* 


prieront. 



MOOD. 



EN'T. 








agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agreerais 


percerais 


emploierais * 


prierais 


agreerais 


percerai s 


emploierais* 


priera is 


agreerait 


percerait 


emploierait* 


prierait 


agreerions 


percerions 


emploierions * 


prierions 


agreeriez 


perceriez 


emploieriez * 


prieriez 


agreeraient 


perceraient. 


emploieraient * 


prieraient. 



mood. 



agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agree 


perce 


emploie * 


prie 


agreons 


percons* 


employons 


prions 


agreez 


percez 


employez 


priez. 



MOOD. 



agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agree 


perce 


emploie * 


prie 


agrees 


perces 


emploies * 


pries 


agree 


perce 


emploie * 


prie 


agreions 


percions 


employions 


prions * 


asreiez 


perciez 


employiez 


priez * 


agreent 


percent 


emploient * 


prient. 


FECT. 








agree 


pierce 


employ 


pray 


agreasse 


percasse * 


employasse 


priasse 


agreasses 


percasses* 


employasses 


priasses 


agreat 


percat* 


employat 


priat 


agreassions 


percassions * 


employassions 


priassions 


atrr^assiez 


percassiez * 


employassiez 


priassiez 


aareassent 


percasaeiti * 


omployassent 


priassent. 



538 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1081. From the foregoing table it results, that the verbs ending in 
eter double the t whenever this letter is followed by a mute syllable, 
as e, es, ent. 

1082. That the words ending in eler double the I whenever this 
letter is followed by a mute syllable, as e, es, ent. 

1083. That the verbs ending in ger keep the e after the g when- 
ever this letter, according to the conjugation of the verb aimer, ought 
to precede the vowels a and o, so as to continue to the g the soft 
sound which it must have in the pronunciation. 

1084. That the verbs ending in eer must keep the two ee-s all 
through the conjugation, in all tenses and persons. 

1085. That the verbs ending in cer take a cedilla under the c 
whenever this letter is followed by one of the vowels a or o, so as to 
preserve the soft sound which it must have in the pronunciation. 

1086. That the verbs ending in yer change the letter y into i 
whenever the y should be followed by an e mute. 

1087. That the verbs ending in ier do not take, in the first and 
second persons plural of the present of the subjunctive, the termina- 
tion of the imperfect of the indicative, as the verb aimer does, but that 
of the present of the indicative. 

1088. But these exceptions are themselves subject to some restric- 
tions ; for instance, there is a certain number of verbs ending in eter, 
which, instead of doubling the letter t before a mute syllable, zsjeter, 
keep a single t, but take a grave accent over the e preceding it. They 
are the following : 

Acheter, to buy. 

Colleter, to collar. 

Coqueter, to coquet. 

Decolleter, to uncover the neck. 

Etiqueter, to label. 

Suracheter, to overpay. 

Trompeter, to summon with sound of trumpet. 

1090. The verbs ending in ecer, emer, ener, ever, evrer, are conju- 
gated in the same manner, taking a grave accent over the e whenever 
it is followed by a mute syllable, as in the following : 

Depecer, to carve. 

Semer, to sow. 

Mener, to lead. 

Achever, to finish. 

Sevrer, to wean. 

The present of the indicative of these verbs is written as follows : 

J'achete, and not j'achette. 
Je depece, " je depece. 



539 



Ebrer, 


as 


celebrer, 


Ecer, 


" 


rapiecer, 


Echer, 


a 


pecher, 


Eder, 


a 


deceder, 


Egler, 


" 


regler, 


Egner, 


a 


regner, 


Esiier, 


" 


alleguer, 


Eler, 


ft 


reveler, 


Einer, 


c< 


blasphemer, 


Ener, 


ec 


aliener, 


Equer, 


ft 


hypothequer, 


Erer, 


cc 


adherer, 


Eter, 


(C 


empieter, 


Etrer, 


C( 


penetrer, 



REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 

.Te se"me, and not je seme. 

Je m£ne, " je mene. 

J'acheve, " j'acheve. 

Je sevre, " je sevre. 

1091. All the verbs ending in 

to celebrate, 
to piece, 
to commit sin, 
to die, 
to regulate, 
to reign, 
to allege, 
to reveal, 
to blaspheme, 
to alienate, 
to mortgage, 
to adhere, 
to encroach, 
to penetrate, 

change the acute accent which is on the e of the penultimate syllable 

into a grave accent in all the tenses and persons in which this syllable 

is followed by e, es, ent; as, 

Je celebre. I celebrate. 

Tu regies. thou regulatest. 

lis revelent. they reveal, &c. 

1092. Among the verbs ending in eler, there are some which, 
instead of doubling the I before a mute syllable, take a grave accent 
over the e which precedes the I. They are the following : 

Peler, to peal. 

Bourreler, to torment. 

Congeler, to congeal. 

Degeler, to thaw. 

Geler, to freeze. 

Harceler, to torment. 

Regeler, to freeze again. 

These verbs are conjugated in the following manner: 

I peal, Je pele, and not pelle. 

He torments, II harcele, " ha-celle. 

They torment, Tls bourrelent, " bourrellent. 

It will thaw, II degelera, " degellera. 

It congeals, II congele, " congellc. 

It would freeze, II gelerait, " gellerait. 

1093. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of about 
twenty-five hundred, in the first person singular of the present of the 
indicative, under the interrogative form, lake a grave accent over the 
last e; as, aime-je? &c. Most grammarians recommend the use of the 



540 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



acute accent in this case, instead of the grave ; but the pronunciation 
induces us not to fall into their views, because this last e always sounds 
as if a grave accent were placed over it. 



QUESTIONS 



1079. How many irregular verbs are there in the first conjugation 1 Which 
are they 1 

1079. Are there not some verbs in the first conjugation which, although they 
are not called irregular, differ in some particular from the verb aimer in the 
spelling of some of their tenses and persons % 

1080. How do the verbs of that description end 1 

1081. In what particular do the verbs ending in eter differ from aimer in their 
conjugation 1 

10S2. In what particular do the verbs ending in eler differ from aimer in their 
conjugation 1 

1083. In what particular do the verbs ending in ger differ from aimer in their 
conjugation 1 

1084. In what particular do the verbs ending in eer differ from aimer in their 
conjugation 1 

1085. In what particular do the verbs ending in cer differ from aimer in their 
conjugation 1 

1086. In what particular do the verbs ending in yer differ from aimer in their 
conjugation % 

1087. In what particular do the verbs ending in ier differ from aimer in their 
conjugation 1 

1088. Are there not some verbs ending in eter which differ from jeter in their 
conjugation % Which are they 1 In what particulars do these verbs differ from 
jeter ? 

1090. Do not verbs ending in ecer, emer, ener, ever, evrer, follow the same 
rule as those mentioned in the preceding paragraph % 

1091. Into what is the acute accent in the verbs contained in paragraph 1091 
changed, when the e on which that accent is placed is followed by a mute sylla- 
ble, that is to say, ending either in e, es, or ent ? 

1092. Among the verbs ending in eler are there not some which, instead of 
doubling the I before a mute syllable, are spelled with a grave accent over the 
e which precedes the letter I ? Which are they 1 

1093. How many regular verbs are there in the first conjugation 1 How are 
those verbs spelled in the first person of the present of the indicative, when used 
interrogatively 1 



1094. SECOND CONJUGATION. FINIR. 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN IR. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

to finish not to finish 

finir. ne pas finir. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

finishing not finishing 

finissant. ne finissant pas. 



FINIR, TO FINISH. 



541 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 



finished 
fini. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 



having finished 
avant fini. 



not having finished 
n'ayant pas fini. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

to have finished not to have finished 

avoir fini. n'avoir pas fini. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Affirmative. 

I finish, &c. 

je finis 

tu finis 

il or elle finit 

nous finissons 



Negate 



Interrogative. 



I do not finish, &c. do I finish 1 &c. 

je ne finis pas finis-je 

tu ne finis pas finis-tu 

il or elle ne finit pas finit-il or elle 

nous ne finissons finissons-nous 



vous finissez vous ne finissez pas finissez-vous 

ils or elles finissent. ils or clles ne finis- finissent-ils < 
sent pas. elles 1 



Interrogative and 
Negative. 
do I not finish % &c 
ne finis-je pas 
ne finis-tu pas 
ne finit-il or elle pas 
ne finissons-nous 

pas 
ne finissez-vous pas 
ne finissent-ils or 



elles 



pa? 



IMPERFECT. 



I finished or was 
finishing, &c. 

je finissais 
tu finissais 
il or elle finissait 

nous finissions 

vous finissiez 

ils or elles finis- 
saient. 



I finished not or 
was no finish- 
ing, &c. 

je ne finissais pas 

tu ne finissais pas 

il or elle ne finissait 
pas 

nous ne finissions 
pas 

vous ne finissiez 
pas 

ils or elles ne finis- 
saient pas. 



did I finish or was 
I finishing 1 &c. 

finissais-je 
finissais-tu 
finissait-il or elle 

finissions-nous 

finissiez-vous 

finissaient-ils or 
elles 1 



did I not finish or 
was I not finish- 
ing'? &c. 
ne finissais-je pas 
ne finissais-tu pas 
ne finissait-il or elle 

pas 
ne finissions-nous 

pas 
ne finissiez-vous pas 

ne finissaient-ils or 
elles pas 1 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I finished or did I finished not or did did I finish 1 &c. did I not finish'? &c. 

finish, &c. not finish, &c. 

je finis je ne finis pas finis-je ne finis-je pas 

tu finis tu ne finis pas finis-tu ne finis-tu pas 

il or elle finit il or elle ne finit pas finit-il or elle ne finit-il or elle 

pas 

46 



542 



FRENCH GRAMMAR, 



nous finimes nous ne finimes pas finimes-nous ne finimes-nous pas 

vous finites vous ne finites pas finites-vous ne finites-vous pas 

ils or elles finirent. ils or elles ne fini- finirent-ils or ellest ne finirent-ils or 
rent pas. elles pas 1 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 

I have finished, I have not finished, have I finished % 

&c. &c. &c. 

j'ai fini je n'ai pas fini ai-je fini 

tn as fini tu n'as pas fini as-tu fini 

il or elle a fini il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle fini 

fini 

nous avons fini nous n'avons pas avons-nous fini 

fini 

vous avez fini vous n'avez pas avez-vous fini 

fini 

ils or elles ont fini. ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles fini 1 

pas fini. 



have I not finished, 

&c. 
n'ai-je pas fini 
n'as-tu pas fini 
n'a-t-il or elle pas 

fini 
n'avons-nous pas 

fini 
n'avez-vous pas fini 

n'ont-ils or elles pas 
fini'? 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had finished, &c. I had not finished, had I finished 1 

&c. &c. 

j'avais fini je n'avais pas fini avais-je fini 

tu avais fini tu n'avais pas fini avais-tu fini 

il or elle avait fini il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle fini 

pas fini 

nous avions fini nous n'avions pas avions-nous fini 

fini 

vous aviez fini vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous fini 

fini 
ils or elles avaient ils or elles n'avaient avaient-ils or elles 
fini. pas fini. fini 1 



had I not finished 1 

&c. 
n'avais-je pas fini 
n'avais-tu pas fini 
n'avak-il or elle 

pas fini 
n'avions-nous pas 

fini 
n'aviez-vous pas 

fini 
n'avaient-ils or 

elles pas fini 1 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had finished, &c. I had not finished, had I finished 1 &c. 

&c. 

j'eus fini je n'eus pas fini eus-je fini 

tu eus fini tu n'eus pas fini eus-tu fiui 

il or elle eut fini il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle fini 

fini 

nous euraes fini nous n'eumes pas eumes-nous fini 

fini 

vous eutes fini vous n'eiites pas eutes-vous fini 

fini 

ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eurent curent-ils or elles 
fini. pas fini. fini % 



had I not finished 1 

&c. 
n'eus-je pas fini 
n'eus-tu pas fini 
n'eut-il or elle pas 

fini 
n'eumes-nous pas 

fini 
n'eutes-vous pas 

fini 
n'eurent-ils or elles 

pas fini 1 



I shall or will fin- 
ish, &c. 
je finirai 
tu finiras 
il or elle finira 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will not shall or will I fin- 
finish, &c. ish 1 &c. 
je ne finirai pas finirai-je 
tu ne finiras pas finiras-tu 
il or elle ne finira finira-t-il or tile 
pas 



shall or will 1 not 

finish 1 &c. 
ne finirai-je pas 
ne finiras-tu pas 
ne finira-t-il or elle 



F1NIR, TO FINISH. 



543 



nous finirons nous ne finirons pas finirons-nous ne finirone-nous pas 

vous finirez vous ne finirez pas finirez-vous ne finirez-vous pas 

ils or elles finiront. il or elles ne fini- finiront-ils or elles 1 ne finiront-ils or 

ront pas. elles pas % 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will have 


I shall or will not 


shall or will I have 


shall or will I not 


finished, &c. 


have finished, 


finished 1 &c. 


have finished 1 




&c. 




&c. 


j'aurai fini 


je n'aurai pas fini 


aurai-je fini 


n'aurai-je pas fini 


tu auras fini 


tu n'auras pas fini 


auras-tu fini 


n'auras-tu pas fini 


il or elle aura fini 


il or elle n'aura 


aura-t-il or elle fini 


n'aura-t-il or elle 




pas fini 




pas fini 


nous aurons fini 


nous n'aurons pas 


aurons-nous fini 


n'aurons-nous pas 




fini 




fini 


vous aurez fini 


vous n'aurez pas 


aurez-vous fini 


n'aurez-vous pas 




fini 




fini 


ils or elles auront 


ils or elles n'auront 


auront-ils or elles 


n'auront-ils or elles 


fini. 


pas fini. 


fini? 


pas fini 1 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
finish, &c. 

je finirais 

tu finirais 

il or elle finirait 

nous finirions 

vous finiriez 
ils or elles fini- 
raient. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not finish, &c. 
je ne finirais pas 
tu ne finirais pas 
il or elle ne finirait 

pas 
nous ne finirions 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I finish 1 &c. 

finirais-je 

finirais-tu 

finirait-il or elle 

finirions-nous 



vous ne finiriez pas finiriez-vous 

ils or elles ne fini- finiraient-ils 

raient pas. elles 1 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not finish 1 &c. 
ne finirais-je pas 
ne finirais-tu pas 
ne finirait-il or elle 

pas 
ne finirions-nous 

pas 
ne finiriez-vous pas 
ne finiraient-ils or 
elles pas 1 



CONDITIONAL PAST. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have finished, 
&c. 

j'aurais fini 

tu aurais fini 

il or elle aurait fini 

nous aurions fini 

vous auriez fini 

ils or elles auraient 
fini 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have fin- 
ished, &c. 

je n'aurais pas fini 

tu n'aurais pas fini 

il or elle n'aurait 
pas fini 

nous n'aurions pas 
fini 

vous n'auriez pas 
fini 

ils or elles n'au- 
raient pas fini. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have finished 1 
&c. 

aurais-je fini 

aurais-tu fini 

aurait-il or elle fini 

aurions-nous fini 

auriez-vous fini 

auraient-ils or elles 
Anil 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have fin- 
ished 1 &c. 

n'am-ais-je pas fini 

n'aurais-tu pas fini 

n'aurait-il or elle 
pas fini 

n'aurions-nous pas 
fini 

n'auriez-vous pas 
fini 

n'auraient-ils or 
elles pas fini 1 



544 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



do finishj 
finis 

finissons 
finissez. 



&c. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

do not finish, &c. 
ne finis pas 
ne finissons pas 
ne finissez pas. 



SUBJECTIVE MOOD. 



that I may finish, &c 

que je finisse 

que tu finisses 

qu'il or qu'elle finisse 

que nous finissions 

que vous finissiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. 



PRESENT. 



that I may not finish, &c. 

que je ne finisse pas 

que tu ne finisses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne finisse pas 

que nous ne finissions pas 

que vous ne finissiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent pas. 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might finish, &c. 

que je finisse 

que tu finisses 

qu'il or qu'elle finit 

que nous finissions 

que vous finissiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. 



that I might not finish, &c. 

que je ne finisse pas 

que tu ne finisses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne finit pas 

que nous ne finissions pas 

que vous ne finissiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent pas. 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have finished, &c. 

quej'aie fini 

que tu aies fini 

qu'il or qu'elle ait fini 

que nous ayons fini 

que vous ayez fini 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient fini. 



that I may not have finished, &c. 

que je n'aie pas fini 

que tu n'aies pas fini 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas fini 

que nous n'ayona pas fini 

que vous n'ayez pas fini 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas fini. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have finished, &c. 

que j'eusse fini 

que tu eusses fini 

qu'il or qu'elle eut fini 

que nous eussions fini 

que vous eussiez fini 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent fini. 



that I might not have finished, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas fini 

que tu n'eusses pas fini 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas fini 

que nous n'eussions pas fini 

que vous n'eussiez pas fini 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas fini. 



1095. All the verbs of this conjugation whose present participle 
terminates in issant are regular. They are two hundred and two 
in number. The others are irregular, and will be found conjugated 



RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 545 

in this grammar to the number of ninety-two. Several grammarians, 
with the idea of reducing the number of the irregular verbs of this 
conjugation, have thought proper to group them into four different 
classes, but without any other result for the pupil than to create a 
confusion in his mind; we shall not adopt this plan, therefore, but 
shall conjugate all the irregular verbs of this conjugation, as well 
as those of the others, separately, according to their alphabetical 
order. 



QUESTIONS 



1095. What is the termination of the present participle in the regular verbs 
of the second conjugation 1 

1095. How many regular verbs are there in that conjugation 1 



THIRD CONJUGATION. EEC E VOIR. 
1096. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN OIR. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



to receive 




not to receive 


recevoir. 




ne pas recevoir, ne recevoir pas, 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 


receiving 




not receiving 


recevant. 




ne recevant pas. 

PAST PARTICIPLE. 


received 






recu, ue, us. 


ues. 





COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

to have received not to have received 

avoir recu. n'avoir pas recu. 

46* 



546 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE, 

having received not having received 

ayant recu. n'ayant pas recu. 



Affirmative. 
I receive, &c. 

je recois 
tu recois 
il or elle recoit 

nous recevons 

vous recevez 

ils or elles recoi- 
vent. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 
Negative. Interrogative. 

I do not receive, do I receive 1 &c. 

&c. 

je ne recois pas recois-je 

tu ne recois pas re^ois-tu 

il or elle ne recoit re^oit-il or elle 

pas 

nous ne recevons recevons-nous 

pas 

vous ne recevez recevez-vous 

pas 

ils or elles ne recoi- recoivent-ils or 

vent pas. elles 1 



Negative and 
Interrogative. 

do I not receive T 

&c. 
ne recois-je pas 
ne re^ois-tu pas 
ne re^oit-il or elle 

pas 
ne recevons-nous 

pas 
ne recevez-vous 

pas 
ne recoivent-ils or 

elles pas 1 



IMPERFECT. 



I received or was 
receiving, &c. 

je recevais 
tu recevais 
il or elle recevait 

nous recevions 

vous receviez 

ils or elles rece- 
vaient. 



I received not or 
was not receiv- 
ing, &c. 

je ne recevais pas 

tu ne recevais pas 

il or elle ne rece- 
vait pas 

nous ne recevions 
pas 

vous ne receviez 
pas 

ils or elles ne re- 
cevaient pas. 



did I receive or 
was I receiv- 
ing? &c. 

recevais-je 

recevais-tu 

recevait-il 



elle 



recev ions-nous 
receviez-vous 



recevaient-ils or 
elles 1 



did I not receive or 
was I not receiv- 
ing! &c. 

ne recevais-je pas 

ne recevais-tu pas 

ne recevait-il or 
elle pas 

ne recevions-nous 
pas 

ne receviez-vous 
pas 

ne recevaient-ils or 
elles pas? 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 



I did receive, &c. I did not receive, did I receive 1 &c. did I not receive 1 



je recus 
tu recus 
il or elle recut 



nous recumes 
vous recutes 



&c. 



je ne recus pas recus-je 

tu ne re^us pas re^us-tu 

il or elle ne recut recut-il or elle 

pas 
nous ne recumes recumes-nous 

pas 
vous ne recutes recutes-vous 

pas 
ils or elles recu- ils or elles ne recu- recurent-ils or 
rent. rent pas. 



elles 1 



&c. 

ne recus-je pas 
ne recus-tu pas 
ne recut-il or elle 

pas 
ne recumes-nous 

pas 
ne recutes-vous paa 

ne recurent-ils or 
elles pas *? 



RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE, 



547 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



have received, I have not receiv- have I received 1 have I not x-eceiv- 



&c. 



ed, &c. 



&c. 



jai recu 

tu as recu 

il or elle a recu 

nous avons recu 

vous avez recu 



je n ai pas recu 
tu n'as pas recu 
il or elle n'a pas 

recu 
nous n'avons pas avons-nous recu 

recu 
vous n avez pas avez-vous recu 

recu 
Is or elles ont recu. ils or elles n'ont ont-ils 

pas recu. reci 



ai-je recu 
as-tu i - ecu 
a-t-il or elle recu 



elles 



ed 1 &c. 
n'ai-je pas recu 
n'as-tu pas recu 
n'a-t-il or elle pas 

recu 
n'avons-nous pas 

recu 
n'avez-vous pas 

recu 
n'ont-ils or elles 

pas I'ecu 1 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had received, I had not received, had I received 1 
&c. &c. &c. 



had I not received 1 
&c. 



i avais recu je n'avais pas recu avais-je recu n avais-je pas recu 

tu avais recu tu n'avais pas recu avais-tu re^u n'avais-tu pas re^u 

il or elle avait recu il or elle n'avait pas avait-il or elle recu n'avait-il or elle pas 

recu recu 

nous avions recu nous n'avions pas avions-nous recu n'avions-nous pas 

recu recu 

vous aviez recu vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous recu n'aviez-vous pas 

recu recu 

ils or elles avaient ils or elles n'av- avaient-ils or elles n'avaient-ils or 
recu. aient pas recu. recu 1 elles pas recu 1 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

had received, &c. I had not received, had I received! had I not received T 
&c. &c. &c. 



j eus recu je n'eus pas recu eus-je recu n eus-je pas recu 

tu eus recu tu n'eus pas recu eus-tu re^u n'eus-tu pas i - ecu 

il or elle eut recu il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle recu n'eut-il or elle pas 

recu 

nous eumes recu nous n'eumes pas eutnes-nous recu 

recu 

vous eutes recu vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous recu 

recu 

ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eurent eurent-ils or elles 
recu. pas recu. recu 1 



recu 
n'eumes-nous pas 

recu 
n'eutes-vous pas 

recu 
n 'eurent-ils or elles 

pas recu 1 



FUTURE PRESENT. 



I shall or will re- I shall or will not shall or will I re- shall or will I not 

ceive, &c. receive, &c. ceive 1 &c. receive 1 &c. 

je recevrai je ne recevrai pas recevrai-je ne recevrai-je pas 

tu recevras tu ne recevras pas recevras-tu ne recevras-tu pas 

il er elle recevra il or elle ne recevra recevra-t-il or elle ne recevra-t-il or 

pas elle pas 



548 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous recevrons 

vous recevrez 

ils or elles rece- 
vront. 



nous ne recevrons recevrons-nous 

pas 
vous ne recevrez i-ecevrez-vous 



ne recevrons-nous 



ne recevrez-vous 



pas pas 

ils or elles ne rece- recevront-ils or ne recevront-ils or 
vront pas. elles 1 elles pas 1 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will have I shall or will not shall or will I have shall or will I not 

received, &c. have received, received 1 &c. have received 1 

&c. &c. 



j aurai recu 

tu auras recu 

il or elle aura recu 

nous aurons recu 

vous aurez recu 

ils or elles auront 
recu. 



je n aurai pas recu aurai-je recu 

tu n'auras pas recu auras-tu recu 

il or elle n'aura pas aura-t-il or elle 

recu recu 

nous n'aurons pas aurons-nous recu 

recu 

vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous recu 

recu 

ils or elles n'auront auront-ils or elles 



pas recu. 



n aurai -je pas recu 
n'auras-tu pas recu 
n 'aura-t-il or elle 

pas recu 
n'aurons-nous pas 

recu 
n'aurez-vous pas 

recu 
n'auront-ils or elles 

pas recu 1 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
receive, &c. 



je recevrais 
tu recevrais 
il or elle recevrait 

nous recevrions 

vous recevriez 

ils or elles rece- 
vraient. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not receive, &c. 



je ne recevrais pas 
tu ne recevrais pas 
il or elle ne rece- 
vrait pas 
nous ne recevrions 

pas 
vous ne recevriez 

pas 
ils or elles ne rece- 
vraient pas. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I receive 1 &c. 



recevrais-je 
recevrais-tu 
recevrait-il or elle 

recevrions-nous 

recevriez-vous 

recevraient-ils or 
elles 1 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not receive 1 
&c. 

ne recevrais-je pas 
ne recevrais-tu pas 
ne recevrait-il or 

elle pas 
ne recevrions-nous 

pas 
ne recevriez-vous 

pas 
ne recevraient-ils 

or elles pas 1 



I should, would, I should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might could, or might 

have received, not have receiv- I have receiv- 

&c. ed, &c. ed 1 &c. 



aurais recu 



je n aurais pas aurais-je recu 
recu 
tu aurais recu tu n'aurais pas aurais-tu recu 

recu 
il or elle aurait il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle 

recu 



recu 



pas recu 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have re- 
ceived 1 &c. 

n'aurais-je pas recu 

n'aurais-tu pas recu 

n'aurait-il or elle pas 
recu 



RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 



549 



nous aunous recu nous n aurions pas aunons-nous recu n aunons-nous ' pas 
recu recu 

tous auriez re^u vous n'auriez pas auriez-vous recu n'auriez-vous pas 
recu recu 

ils or elles auraient ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or elles n'auraient-ils or 



raient recu. 



elles pas re^u ' 



do receive, &c. 



recois 

recevons 

recevez. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

do not receive, &c. 

ne recois pas 
ne recevons pas 
ne recevez pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



that I may receive, &c 

que je recoive 

que tu re^oives 

qu'il or qu'elle receive 

que nous recevions 

que vous receviez 

qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent. 



that I may not receive, &c. 

que je ne recoive pas 

que tu ne recoives pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne recoive pas 

que nous ne recevions pas 

que vous ne receviez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne recoivent pas. 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might receive, &c. 

que je recusse 

que tu recusses 

qu'il or qu'elle recut 

que nous recussions 

que vous recussiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles recussent. 



that I might not receive, &c. 

que je ne recusse pas 

que tu ne recusses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne recut pas 

que nous ne recussions pas 

que vous ne recussiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne recussent pas. 



that I may have received, &c. 

que j'aie recu 

que tu aies recu 

qu'il or qu'elle ait recu 

que nous ayons recu 

que vous ayez recu 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient recu. 



PRETERITE. 

that I may not have received, &c. 

que je n'aie pas recu 

que tu n'aies pas recu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas recu 

que nous n'ayons pas recu 

que vous n'ayez pas recu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas recu. 



that I might have received, &c. 

que j'eusse recu 

que tu eusses recu 

qu'il or qu'elle eut recu 

que nous eussions recu 

que vous eussiez recu 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent recu. 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might not have received, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas recu 

que tu n'eusses pas recu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas recu 

que nous n'eussions pas recu 

que vous n'eussiez pas recu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas recu. 



550 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1097. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of two hun- 
dred and thirty, end in oir in the infinitive. Of these, seven only are 
regular; they are easily recognized by their termination in evoir; the 
others are called irregular, and will be conjugated in this grammar in 
all their tenses and persons. 

The seven regular verbs of this conjugation are the following : 

Apercevoir, to perceive. 

Concevoir, to conceive. 

Decevoir, to deceive. 

Percevoir, to collect taxes. 

Recevoir, to receive. 

Devoir, to owe. 

Redevoir, to owe again. 

1098. When the letter c, which is found in the first five verbs of 
this list, is followed, in the conjugation of the verb, by any of the 
vowels o, o, or m, a cedilla is placed under it, to change the hard 
sound that c has before these vowels into the soft sound which is 
required by the pronunciation. 

In the past participle of the verb devoir, which is du, the last letter, 
u, takes a circumflex accent, to distinguish this word from the con- 
tracted article du, of the ; the accent is not kept in the feminine. 
The past participle redu, from redevoir, takes no accent. 



QUESTIONS 



1097. How many verbs are there in the third conjugation 1 

1097. Amongst those two hundred and thirty verbs, how many are there 

which are called regular 1 What is the termination of those regular verbs in the 

present of the infinitive 1 

1097. What are the regular verbs of the third conjugation 1 Name them. 

1098. Whenever in a verb of this conjugation the letter c is followed by any 
of the vowels a, o, u, what sign should be placed under the c, in order to make 
it soft % 

1098. Why is the past participle of the verb devoir, du, spelt with a circum- 
flex accent over the u ? Is that accent kept in the feminine or plural 1 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. RENDRE. 
1099. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN RE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

to render not to render 

rendre. ne pas rendre. 



RENDRE, TO READER. 



551 



rendering 
rendant. 



PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

not rendering 1 



ne rendant pas. 



PAST PARTICIPLE. 

rendered 
rendu. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. 

to have rendered not to have rendered 

avoir rendu. n'avoir pas rendu. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. 

having rendered not having rendered 

ayant rendu. n'ayant pas rendu. 



Affirmative. 
I render, &c. 
je rends 

tu rends 

il or elle rend 

nous rendons 

vous rendez 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Negative. Interrogative. Negative and 

Interrogative. 
I do not render, do I render 1 &c. do I not render 1 

&c. &c. 

je ne rends pas est-ce que je rends est-ce que je ne 

rends pas 
tu ne rends pas rends-tu ne rends-tu pas 

il or elle ne rend rend-il or elle ne rend-il or elle pas 



ne rendons-nous pas 

ne rendez-vous pas 
ils or elles rendent. ils or elles ne ren- rendent-ils or elles! ne rendent-ils or 



nous ne rendons rendons-nous 

pas 
vous ne rendez pas rendez-vous 



dent 



elles 



pas 



I rendered, or was 
rendering, &r. 

je rendais 
tu rendais 
il or elle rendait 

■one rendkms 

vou9 rendiez 

ils or elles ren- 
daient. 



IMPERFECT. 

I rendered not, or did I render, or 
was not render- was I render- 
ing, &c. ing 1 &c. 

je ne rendais pas rendais-je 

tu ne rendais pas rendais-tu 

il or elle ne rendait rendait-il or elle 

pas 

nous lie rendions rendions-nous 

pas 

vous ne rendiez pas rendiez-vous 



Is or elles ne ren- 
daient pas. 



rendaient-ils 
elles 1 



did I not render, ot 
was I not ren- 
dering % &c. 

ne rendais-je pas 

ne rendais-tu pas 

ne rendait-il or elle 
pas 

ne rendions-nous 
pas 

ne rendiez-vous 
pas 

ne rendaient-ils or 
elles pas 1 



552 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 



I rendered, or did I rendered not, or did I render 1 &c. 
render, &c. did not render, 

&c. 



je rendis 
tu rendis 
il or elle rendit 

nous rendimes 

vous rendites 



je ne rendis pas rendis-je 
tu ne rendis pas rendis-tu 
il or elle ne rendit rendit-il or elle 



pas 



rendit 



rendi 



mes-nous 



vous ne rendites rendites-vous 
pas 



ils or elles ren- ils or elles ne ren- rendirent-ils or 



dirent. 



dirent pas 



dies'? 



did I not render 1 
&c. 

ne rendis-je pas 
ne rendis-tu pas 
ne rendit-il or elle 

pas 
ne rendimes-nous 

pas 
ne rendites-vous 

pas 
ne rendirent-ils or 

elles pas 1 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



I have rendered, 
&e. 

j'ai rendu 

tu as rendu 

il or elle a rendu 

nous avons rendu 

vous avez rendu 

ils or elles out 
rendu. 



I have not ren- 
dered, &c. 

je n'ai pas rendu 

tu n'as pas rendu 

il or elle n'a pas 
rendu 

nous n'avons pas 
rendu 

vous n'avez pas 
rendu 

ils or elles n'ont 
pas rendu. 



have I rendered % 
&c. 

ai-je rendu 
as-tu rendu 
a-t-il or elle rendu 

avons-nous rendu 

avez-vous rendu 

ont-ils or elles 
rendu 1 



have I not ren- 
dered 1 &c. 

n'ai-je pas rendu 

n'as-tu pas rendu 

n'a-t-il or elle pas 
x-endu 

n'avons-nous pas 
rendu 

n'avez-vous pas 
rendu 

n'ont-ils or elles pas 
rendu 1 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had rendered, 

&c. , 
j'avais rendu 

tu avais rendu 

il or elle avait 

rendu 
nous avions rendu 

vous aviez rendu 

ils or elles avaient 
rendu. 



I had not ren- had I rendered 1 

dered, &c. &c. 

je n'avais pas avais-je rendu 

rendu 



tu n avais pas 

rendu 
il or elle n'avait 

pas rendu 



avais-tu rendu 



/ait-il 
rendu 



elle 



nous n'avions pas avions-nous rendu 
rendu 



vous n aviez pas 

rendu 
ils or elles n'av- 

aient pas rendu. 



aviez-vous rendu 



avaient-ils or elles 
rendu 1 



had I not ren- 
dered 1 &c. 

n'avais-je pas 
rendu 

n'avais-tu pas 
rendu 

n'avait-il or elle 
pas rendu 

n'avions-nous pas 
rendu 

n'aviez-vous pas 
rendu 

n'avaient-ils or 
elles pas rendu 1 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had rendered, I had not ren- had I rendered 1 had I not ren- 

&c. dered, &c. &c. dered 1 

j'eus rendu je n'eus pas rendu eus-je rendu n'eus-je pas rendu 

tu eus rendu tu n'eus pas rendu eus-tu rendu n'eus-tu pas rendu 

il or elle eut rendu il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle rendu n'eut-il or elle pas 
rendu rendu 



RENDRE, TO RENDER. 



553 



nous eurnes rendu nous n'eumes pas eurnes-nous rendu n'eumes-nous pas 

rendu rendu 

vous eutes rendu vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous rendu n'eutes-vous pas 

rendu rendu 

ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eurent eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ils or elles 

rendu. pas rendu. rendu 1 pas rendu 1 



I shall or will ren- 
der, &c. 
je rendrai 
tu rendras 
il or elle rendra 

nous rendrons 

vous rendrez 

ils or elles ren- 
dront. 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will not shall or will I 

render, &c. render 1 &c. 

je ne rendrai pas rendrai-je 

tu ne rendras pas rendras-tu 

il or elle ne rendra rentra-t-il or elle 

pas 

nous ne rendrons rendrons-nous 

pas 

vous ne rendrez rendrez-vous 

pas 

ils or elles ne ren- rendront-ils or 

dront pas. elles 1 



shall or will I not 

render 1 &c. 
ne rendrai-je pas 
ne rendras-tu pas 
ne rendra-t-il or 

elle pas 
ne rendrons-nous 

pas 
ne rendrez-vous 

pas 
ne rendront-ils or 

elles pas 1 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 

I shall or will have I shall or will not shall or will I have shall or will I not 

rendered, &c have rendered, rendered 1 &c. have rendered 1 

&c. &c. 

j'aurai rendu je n'aurai pas aurai-je rendu n'aurai-je pas 

rendu rendu 

tu auras rendu tu n'auras pas auras-tu rendu n'auras-tu pas 

rendu rendu 

il or elle aura rendu il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle 

pas rendu rendu pas rendu 

nous aurons rendu nous n'aurons pas aurons-nous rendu n'aurons-nous pas 

rendu rendu 

vous aurez rendu vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous rendu n'aurez-vous pas 

rendu rendu 

ils or elles auront ils or elles n'auront auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or 

rendu. pas rendu. rendu 1 elles pas rendu ! 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, " would, 
could, or might 
render, &c. 

je rendrais 
tu rendrais 
il or elle rendrait 

nous rendrions 

vous rendriez 

ils or elles ren- 
draient. 



PRESENT. 

I should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might 
not render, &c. I render 1 &c. 

je ne rendrais pas rendrais-je 

lu ne rendrais pas rendrais-tu 

il or elle ne rendrait rendrait-il or elle 

pas 

nous ne rendrions rendrions-nous 

pas 

vous ue rendriez rendriez-vous 

pas 

ils or e\\ea ne ren- rendraient-ils or 

draient pas. elles 1 

47 



should, would, 

could, or might 

I not render 1 

&c. 
ne rendrais-je pas 
ne rendrais-tu pas 
ne rendrait-il or 

elle pas 
ne rendrions-nous 

pas 
ne rendriez-vous 

pas 
ne rendraient-ils 

or elles pas 1 



551 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have rendered, 
&c. 

i'aurais rendu 

tu aurais rendu 

il or elle aurait 

rendu 
nous aurions rendu 



vous auriez 



rendu 



ils or elles auraient 
rendu. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have ren- 
dered, &c. 

je n'aurais pas 
rendu 

tu n'aurais pas 
rendu 

il or elle n'aurait 
pas rendu 

nous n'aurions pas 
rendu 

vous n'auriez pas 
rendu 

ils or elles n'au- 
raient pas rendu. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have ren- 
dered 1 &c. 

aurais-je rendu 

aurais-tu rendu 

aurait-il or elle 

rendu 
aurions-nous rendu 



aunez-vous 



rendu 



auraient-ils or elles 
rendu 1 



should, would, 
could or might 
I not have ren- 
dered 1 &c. 

n'aurais-je pas 
rendu 

n'aurais-tu pas 
rendu 

n'aurait-il or elle 
pas rendu 

n'aurions-nous pas 
rendu 

n'auriez-vous pas 
rendu 

n'auraient-ils or 
elles pas rendu 1 



do render, &c. 
rends 
rendons 
rendez. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

do not. render, I 
ne rends pas 
ne rendons pas 
ne rendez pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



that I may render, &c. 

que je rende 

que tu rendes 

qu'il or qu'elle rende 

que nous rendions 

que vous rendiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles rendent. 



that I may not render, &c. 

que je ne rende pas 

que tu ne rendes pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne rende pas 

que nous ne rendions pas 

que vous ne rendiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendent pas. 



that I might render, &c. 

que je rendisse 

que tu rendisses 

qn'il or qu'elle rendit 

que nous rendissions 

que vous rendissiez 

qu'ils or qu'elles rendissent. 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might not render, &c. 

que je ne rendisse pas 

que tu ne rendisses pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne rendit pas 

que nous ne rendissions pas 

que vous ne rendissiez pas 

qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendissent pas. 



that I may have rendered, &c. 

que j'aie rendu 

que tu aies rendu 

qu'il or qu'elle ait rendu 

que nous ayons rendu 

que vous ayez rendu 

qu'ils or qu'elles aient rendu. 



PRETERITE. 

that I may not have rendered, &c 

que je n'aie pas rendu 

que tu n'aies pas rendu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas rendu 

que nous n'ayons pas rendu 

que vous n'ayez pas rendu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas rendu. 



RENDRE, TO RENDER. 



555 



that I might have rendered, &c. 

que j'eusse rendu 

que tu eusses rendu 

qu'il or qu'elle eut rendu 

que nous eussions rendu 

que vous eussiez rendu 

qu'ils or qu'elles eussent rendu. 



PLUPERFECT. 

that I might not have rendered, &c. 

que je n'eusse pas rendu 

que tu n'eusses pas rendu 

qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas rendu 

que nous n'eussions pas rendu 

que vous n'eussiez pas rendu 

qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas rendu. 



1100. All the verbs of this conjugation end in re in the present of 
the infinitive, as rendre, to render. 

They are about two hundred and forty in number. 

Those which are conjugated like rendre, in all their tenses and per- 
sons, are called regular ; forty of them belong to this class ; they are 
the following : 



Appendre, (not 


to hang up. 


Morfondre, 


to be very cold. 


used,) 




Parfondre, (not 


to melt equally. 


Attendre, 


to wait, to expect. 


used,) 




Confondre, 


to confound. 


Pendre, 


to hang. 


Correspondre, 


to correspond. 


Perdre, 


to lose. 


Defendre, 


to defend. 


Pondre, 


to lay eggs. 


Demordre, 


to give up. 


Pourfendre, 


to cut in two. 


Dependre, 


to take down, or to 


Pretendre, 


to pretend. 




depend on, upon. 


Refendre, 


to split again. 


Descendre, 


to go down, to de- 


Refondre, 


to melt again. 




scend, &c. 


Remordre, 


to bite again. 


Detendre, 


to unbend, to 


Rendre, 


to render. 




loosen. 


Repandre, 


to spell, to shed. 


Detordre, 


to untwist. 


Repondre, 


to answer. 


Distendre, 


to distend, to ex- 


Retordre, 


to twist again. 




tend. 


Revendre, 


to sell again. 


Entendre, 


to hear, to under- 


Sous entendre, 


to understand. 




stand. 


Survendre, (not 


to sell too dear. 


Epandre, 


to spread. 


used,) 




Etendre, 


to spread. 


Suspendre, 


to suspend. 


Fendre, 


to split. 


Tendre, 


to hold out, to bend. 


Fondre, 


to melt. 


Tondre, 


to shear. 


Mevendre, (not 


to undersell. 


Tordre, 


to twist. 


used,) 




Vendre, 


to sell. 


Mordre, 


to bite. 







All the other verbs of this conjugation are irregular, and will be 
conjugated in this grammar. 

1101. There is a sure method of ascertaining whether a verb of the 
fourth conjugation is regular or not ; if the present participle ends in 
dant, the verb is regular; if not, the verb is irregular. 

1102. It must be remembered, that, when the first person singular 
of the present of the indicative, of any verb, has only one syllable, we 
cannot use it interrogatively ; thus, we cannot say, vends-je 1 do I sell ? 
prends-je? do I take ? &c. ; the only exceptions are : 
Fais-je ? Do I do 1 



Dis-jf 



Do 



556 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Dois-je 1 Do I owe 1 

Vois-je 1 Do I see % 

Ai-je 1 Have 1 1 

Vais-je 1 Do I go 1 

This remark is applicable to nearly all the verbs of the fourth con- 
jugation, whatever may be the number of their syllables. Another 
form must, then, be given to the verb ; as, 

Est-ce que je vends 1 Is it that I sell 1 &c. 

The interrogation being made in the verb to be, est-ce, the verb 
following is used in the affirmative form. 



QUESTIONS. 



1100. How many verbs are there in the fourth conjugation 1 

1100. How many regular verbs are there in that conjugation % 

1101. How can it always be ascertained whether a verb of the fourth conju- 
gation is either regular or irregular 1 

1102. When a verb of this or of any other conjugation, in the first person 
singular of the present of the indicative used interrogatively, is composed of only 
one syllable, what form should it assume 1 

1102. What are the exceptions to the preceding rule 1 



1103. CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERBS. 

We will only give a single model for the conjugation of the passive 
verbs, because the form is the same in the four conjugations. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



to be loved not to be loved 

6tre aime. n'etre pas aime. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

being loved not being loved 

etant aime. n'etant pas aime 

COMPOUND OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

to have been loved not to have been loved 

avoir ete aime. n'avoir pas ete aime. 



PASSIVE VERBS. 



557 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. 

having been loved. not having been loved 



ayant ete aime. 



n ayant pas ete aime. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Affirmative. 

I am loved, &c. 
je suis aime, ee 

tu es aime, ee 

il est aime 
elle est aimee 
nous sommes 

aimes, ees 
vous etes aimes, 

ees, 
ils sont aimes 

elles sont aimees. 



Negative. Interrogative. Negative and In- 
terrogative. 

I am not loved, &c. am I loved 1 &c. am I not loved 1 &c. 

je ne suis pas suis-je aime, ee 

aime, ee 

tu n'es pas aime, es-tu aime, ee 

ee 

il n'est pas aime est-il aime 

elle n'est pas aimee est-elle aimee 

nous ne sommes sommes-nous 

pas aimes, ees aimes, ees 



ne suis-je pas aime, 

ee 
n'es-tu pas aime, ee 

n'est-il pas aime 
n'est-elle pas aimee 
ne sommes-nous pas 
aimes, ees 



rous n'etes pas etes-vous aimes, n'etes-vous 



aimes, ees 
ne sont-ils pas aimes 



amies, ees ees 

ils ne sont pas sont-ils aimes 

aimes 
elles ne sont pas sont-elles aimees 1 ne sont-elles pas 

aimees. aimeesl 



IMPERFECT. 

I was loved, &c. I was not loved, was I loved 1 &c. was I not loved 1 

&c. &c. 

J'etais aime, ee jen'etais pas aime, etais-je aime, ee n'etais-je pas aime, 

ee ee 

tu etais aime, ee tu n'etais pas aime, etais-tu aime, ee n'etais-tu pas aime, 

ee ee 

il etait aime il n'etait pas aime etait-il aime n'etait-il pas aime 

elle etait aimee elle n'etait pas etait-elle aimee n'etait-elle pas 

aimee aimee 

nous etions aimes, nous n'etions pas etions-nous aimes, n'etions-nous pas 

ees aimes, ees ees aimes, ees 

vous etiez aimes, vous n'etiez pas etiez-vous aimes, n'etiez-vous pas 

ees aimes, ees ees aimes, ees 

ils etaient aimes ils n'etaient pas etaient-ils aimes n'etaient-ils pas 

aimes aimes 

elles ' etaient elles n'etaient pas etaient-elles n'etaient-elles pas 
aimees. aimees. aimees 1 aimees 1 



PRETEPJTE DEFINITE. 



I wa« iovd, kc. 

je fus airnej £e 

tu fus aimi, ee 

il fut aime 
•lie fut aimee 



I was not loved, was I loved 1 &c. was I not loved 1 



&c. 
je ne fus pas aime, fus-je aime, ee 

ee 
tu ne fus pas aime, fus-tu aime, ee 

ee 
il ne fut pas aime fut-il aime 
elle ne fut pas fut-elle aimee 

aimee 

47* 



&c. 

ne fus-je pas aime, 

ee 
ne fus-tu pas aime, 

ee 
ne fut-il pas aime 
ne fut-elle pas 

aimee 



558 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous fumes aimes, 


nous ne fumes pas 


fumes -nous aimes, 


ne fumes-nous pas 


ees 


aimes, ees 


ees 


aimes, ees 


vous futes airaes, 


vous ne futes pas 


fiites-vous aimes, 


ne futes-vous pas- 


ees 


aimes, ees 


ees 


aimes, ees 


lis furent airaes 


ils ne furent pas 


furent-ils aimes 


ne furent-ils pas 




aimes 




aimes 


elles furent aimees. 


elles ne furent pas 


furent-elles aimees 1 


ne furent-elles pas 




aimees. 




aimees 1 




PRETERITE 


INDEFINITE. 




I have been loved, 


I have not been 


have I been loved 1 


have I not been 


&c. 


loved, &c. 


&c. 


loved, &c. 


j'ai ete aime, ee 


je n'ai pas ete 


ai-je ete aime, ee 


n'ai-je pas ete 




aime, ee 




aime, ee 


tu as ete aime, ee 


tu n'as pas ete 


as-tu ete aime, ee 


n'as-tu pas ete 




aime, ee 




aime, ee 


il a ete aime 


il n'a pas ete aime 


a-t-il ete aime 


n'a-t-il pas ete aime 


elle a ete aimee 


elle n'a pas ete 


a-t-elle ete aimee 


n'a-t-elle pas ete 




aimee 




aimee 


nous avons ete 


nous n'avons pas 


avons-nous ete 


n'avons-nous pas 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


vous avez ete 


vous n'avez pas ete 


avez-vous ete 


n'avez-vous pas ete 


aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


ils ont ete aimes 


ils n'ont pas ete 


ont-ils ete aimes 


n'ont-ils pas ete 




aimes 




aimes 


elles ont ete 


elles n'ont pas ete 


ont-elles ete 


n'ont-elles pas ete 


aimees. 


aimees. 


aimees *? 


aimees 1 




PLUPERFECT. 




I had been loved, 


I had not been 


had I been loved, 


had I not been 


&c. 


loved, &c. 


&c. 


loved, &c. 


j'avais ete aime, 


je n'avais pas ete 


avais-je ete aime, 


n'avais-je pas ete 


ee 


aime, ee 


ee 


aime, ee 


tu avais ete aime, 


tu n'avais pas ete 


avais-tu ete aime, 


n'avais-tu pas ete 


ee 


aime, ee 


ee 


aime, ee 


il avait ete aime 


il n'avait pas ete 


avait-il ete aime 


n'avait-il pas ete 




aime 




aime 


elle avait ete aimee 


elle n'avait pas 


avait-elle ete aimee 


n'avait-elle pas 




ete aimee 




ete aimee 


nous avions ete 


nous n'avions pas 


avions-nous ete 


n'avions-nous pas 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


vous aviez ete 


vous n'aviez pas 


aviez-vous ete 


n'aviez-vous pas 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


aimes, ees 


ete aimes, ees 


ils avaient ete 


ils n'avaient pas 


avaient-ils 6te 


n'avaient-ils pas 


aimes 


ete aimes 


aimes 


ete aimes 


elles avaient ete 


elles n'avaient ete 


avaient-elles ete 


n'avaient-elles pas 


aimees. 


aimees. 


aimees 1 


ete aimees 1 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had been loved, I had not been had I been loved 1 had I not been 

&c. loved, &c. &c. loved 1 &c. 

j'eus ete aime, ee je n'eus pas ete eus-je ete aime, 6e n'eus-je pas ete 

aime, ee aime, ee 

tu eus ete aime, ee tu n'eus pas ete eus-tu ete aime, ee n'eus-tu pas ete 

aime, ee aime, ee 

il eut ete aime il n'eut pas ete eut-il ete aime n'eut-il pas ete 

aime aime 

elle eut ete aimee elle n'eut pas ete eut -elle ete aimee n'eut-elle pas 6t6 

aimee aimee 



PASSIVE VERBS. 



559 



nous eumes 

aimes, ees 
vous elites 

aimes, ees 
ils eureat 

aimes 
elles eurent 

aimees. 



ete 



nous n'eumes pas 

ete aimes, ees 
vous n'eutes pas 

ete aimes, ees 
ils n'eurent pas 

ete aimes 
elles n'eurent pas 

ete aimees. 



eumes-nous ete 

aimes, ees 
eutes-vous ete 

aimes, ees 
eurent-ils ete 

aimes 
euvent-elles ete 

aimees 1 



n eumes-nous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'eutes-vous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'eurent-ils pas 

ete aimes 
n'eurent-elles pas 

ete aimees 1 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will be 

loved, &c. 
je serai aime, ee 

tu seras aime, ee 

il sera aime 

elle sera aimee 

nous serons aimes, 

ees 
vous serez aimes, 

ees 
ils seront aimes 

elles seront aimees. 



I shall or will not 

be loved, &c. 
je ne serai pas 

aime, ee 
tu ne seras pas 

aime, ee 
il ne sera pas 

aime 
elle ne sera pas 

aimee 
nous ne serons pas 

aimes, ees 
vous ne serez pas 

aimes, ees 
ils ne seront pas 

aimes 
elles ne seront pas 

aimees. 



shall or will I be 

loved 1 &c. 
serai-je aime, ee 

seras-tu aime, ee 

sera- t-il aime 

sera-t-elle aimee 

serons-nous aimes, 

ees 
serez-vous aimes, 

ees 
seront-ils aimes 

seront-elles aimees 1 



shall or will I not 

be loved 1 &c. 
ne serai-je pas 

aime, ee 
ne seras-tu pas 

aime, ee 
ne sera-t-il pas 

aime 
ne sera-t-elle pas 

aimee 
ne serons-nous pas 

aimes, ees 
ne serez-vous pas 

aimes, ees 
ne seront-ils pas 

aimes 
ne seront-elles pas 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will have 
been loved, &c. 

j'aurai ete aime, 

ee 
tu auras ete aime, 

ee 
il aura ete aime 

elle aura ete aimee 

nous aurons ete 

aimes, ees 
vous aurez ete 

aimes, ees 
ils auront ete 

aimes 
elles auront ete 

aimees. 



I shall or will not 

have been loved, 

&c. 
je n'aurai pas ete 

aime, ee 
tu n'auras pas ete 

aime, ee 
il n'aura pas ete 

aime 
elle n'aura pas ete 

aimee 
nous n'aurons pas 

ete aimes, ees 
vous n'aurez pas 

ete aimes, ees 
ils n'auront pas 

ete aimes 
elles n'auront pas 

ete aimees. 



shall or will I have 
been loveo. 1 &c. 

aurai-je ete aime, 

ee 
auras-tu ete aime, 

ee 
aura-t-il ete aime 

aura-t-elle ete 

aimee 
aurons-nous ete 

aimes, ees 
aurez-vous ete 

aimes, ees 
auront-ils ete 

aimes 
auront-elles ete 

aimees 1 



shall or will I not 

have been loved! 

&c. 
n'aurai-je pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'auras-tu pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'aura -t-il pas ete 

aime 
n'aura-t-elle pas 

ete aimee 
n'aurons-nous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'aurez-vous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'auront-ils pas ete 

aimes 
n'auront-elles pas 

ete aimees 1 



560 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
be loved, &c. 

je serais aime, ee 

tu serais aime, ee 
il serait aime 
elle serait aimee 

nous serions aimes, 

ees 
vous seriez aimes, 

ees 
ils seraient aimes 

elles seraient 
aimees. 



I should, would, 

could, .or might 

not be loved, &c. 
je ne serais pas 

aime, ee 
tu ne serais pas 

aime, ee 
il ne serait pas 

aime 
elle ne serait pas 

aimee 
nous ne serions 

pas aimes, ees 
vous ne seriez pas 

aimes, ees 
ils ne seraient pas 

aimes 
elles ne seraient 

pas aimees. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I be loved 1 &c. 

serais-je aime, ee 

serais-tu aime, ee 
serait-il aime 
serait-elle aimee 

serions-nous aimes. 

ees 
seriez-vous aimes, 

ees 
seraient-ils aimes 

seraient-elles 



should, would, 

could, or might I 

not be loved 1 &c. 
ne serais-je pas 

aime, ee 
ne serais-tu pas 

aime, ee 
ne serait-il pas 

aime 
ne serait-elle pas 

aimee 
ne serions-nous 

pas aimes, ees 
ne seriez-vous pas 

aimes, ees 
ne seraient-ils pas 

aimes 
ne seraient-elles 

pas aimees 1 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have been loved, 
&c. 

j'aurais ete aime, 
ee 

tuaurais ete aime, 
ee 

il aurait ete aime 

elle aurait ete 

aimee 
nous aurions ete 

aimes, ees 
vous auriez ete 

aimes, ees 
ils auraient ete 

aimes 
elles auraient ete 

aimees. 



be loved, &c. 
sois aime, ee 
soyons aimes, ees 
eoyez aimes, ees. 



that I may be loved, &c. 
que je sois aime, ee 
que tu sois aime, ee 
qu'il soit aime 
qu'elle soit aimee 



I should, would, 

could, or might 

not have been 

loved, &c. 
je n'aurais pas ete 

aime, ee 
tu n'aurais pas ete 

aime, ee 
il n'aurait pas ete 

aime 
elle n'aurait pas 

ete aimee 
nous n'aurions pas 

ete aimes, ees 
vous n'auriez pas 

ete aimes, ees 
ils n'auraient pas 

ete aimes 
elles n'auraient 

pas ete aimees. 



should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might 

I have been I not have been 

loved 1 &c. loved 1 &c. 

n'aurais-je pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'aurais-tu pas ete 

aime, ee 
n'aurait-il pas ete 

aime 
n'aurait-elle pas 

ete aimee 
n'aurions-nous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'auriez-vous pas 

ete aimes, ees 
n'auraient-ils pas 

ete aimes 
n'auraient-elles 

pas ete aimees 1 



aurais-je ete aime, 

ee 
aurais-tu ete aime, 

ee 
aurait-il ete aime 

aurait-elle ete 

aimee 
aurions-nous ete 

aimes, ees 
auriez-vous ete 

aimes, ees 
auraient-ils ete 

aimes 
auraient-elles ete 

aimees 1 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

be not loved, &c. 
ne sois pas aime, ee 
ne soyons pas aimes, ees 
ne soyez pas aimes, ees. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

that I may not be loved, &c. 
que je ne sois pas aime, ee 
que tu ne sois pas aime, ee 
qu'il ne soit pas aime, 
qu'elle ne soit pas aimee 



PRONOMINAL VERBS. 



561 



que nous soyons aimes, ees 
que vous soyez aimes, ees 
qu'ils soient aimes 
qu'elles soient aimees. 



que nous ne soyons pas aimes, eea 
que vous ne soyez pas aimes, ees 
qu'ils ne soient pas aimes 
qu'elles ne soient pas aimees. 



that I might be loved, &c. 
que je fusse aime, ee 
que tu fusses aime, ee 
qu'il fut aime 
qu'elle tut aimee 
que nous fussions aimes, ees 
que vous fussiez aimes, ees 
qu'ils fussent aimes 
qu'elles fussent aimees. 



IMPERFECT. 

that I might not be loved, &c. 
que je ne fosse pas aime, ee 
que tu ne fusses pas aime, ee 
qu'il ne fut pas aime 
qu'elle ne fut pas aimee 
que nous ne fussions pas aimes, ees 
que vous ne fussiez pas aimes, ees 
qu'ils ne fussent pas aimes 
qu'elles ne fussent pas aimees. 



that I may have been loved, &c. 
que j'aie ete aime, ee 
que tu aies ete aime, ee 
qu'il ait ete aime 
qu'elle ait ete aimee 
que nous ayons ete aimes, ees 
que vous ayez ete aimes, ees 
qu'ils aient ete aimes 
qu'elles aient ete aimees. 



that I may not have been loved, &c. 
que je n'aie pas ete aime, ee 
que tu n'aies pas ete aime, ee 
qu'il n'ait pas ete aime 
qu'elle n'ait pas ete aimee 
que nous n'ayons pas ete aimes, ees 
que vous n'ayez pas ete aimes, ees 
qu'ils n'aient pas ete aimes 
qu'elles n'aient pas ete aimees. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have been loved, &c. 
que j'eusse ete aime, ee 
que tu eusses ete aime, ee 
qu'il eut ete aime 
qu'elle eut ete aimee 
que nous eussions ete aimes, ees 
que vous eussiez ete aimes, ees 
qu'ils eussent ete aimes 
qu'elles eussent ete aimees. 



that I might not have been loved, &c. 
que je n'eusse pas ete aime, ee 
que tu n'eusses pas ete aime, ee 
qu'il n'eut pas ete aime 
qu'elle n'eut pas ete aimee 
que nous n'eussions pas ete aimes, ees 
que vous n'eussiez pas ete aimes, ees 
qu'ils n'eussent pas ete aimes 
qu'elles n'eussent pas ete aimees. 



1104. OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. 

Pronominal verbs are those in which each person is conjugated, 
through all the tenses, with two pronouns of the same person, one 
being nominative, the other objective. 

If the nominative of the verb, instead of being a pronoun, is a noun, 
then the nominative pronoun is not used, and the objective must be 
of the same number and person as the nominative, that is to say, of 
the third person singular or plural, according to the number of this 
nominative. (For the reflective pronouns see the Grammar.) 



562 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

1105. OF REFLECTED VERBS. 

Reflected verbs are either active or neuter. (See the Grammar.) 
Some active verbs are used impersonally with the reflected form ; 
but then they admit only of the third person singular. They assume 
this form, in a passive sense, for the sake of brevity and energy ; as in, 

There are a great many houses building II se batit beaucoup de maisons cette 
this year, annee, 

instead of 

Beaucoup de maisons sont baties cette annee. 

A great battle will be fought to-morrow, II se donnera une grande bataille de- 
main, 

instead of 

Une grande bataille sera donnee demain. 

Reflected verbs have their simple tenses conjugated like those of 
the verbs from which they are derived, whether active or neuter, reg- 
ular or irregular ; but their compound tenses are conjugated with the 
auxiliary verb etre, to be, without exception, and the past participle 
agrees in number and gender with its nominative, when the verb is 
active. 

1106. When a reflected verb is used in the infinitive mood, pre- 
ceded by another verb, the reflected pronoun placed before the infin- 
itive must be of the same number and person as the nominative of 
the first verb ; as in , 

I wish to take a walk. Je veux me promener. 

Thou wishest to take a walk. Tu veux te promener. 

He or she wishes to take a walk. II or elle veut se promener, &c. 

My brother wishes to take a walk. Mon frere veut se promener. 

My brothers wish to take a walk. Mes freres veulent se promener. 

Foreigners must pay attention to this rule, in order to avoid a fault 
very common among them, which consists in using the reflected pro- 
nouns of the third person singular or plural before the infinitive, what- 
ever may be the person and number of the nominative of the first verb ; 
a fault into which they are led by observing the pronoun se so com- 
monly prefixed to the infinitive of the reflected verbs. The application 
of this rule may present some difficulties in the case of impersonal 
verbs, which are used elliptically ; but, by the analysis of the sen 
tence, they are easily removed ; as in, 

You must go and take a walk. II faut aller vous promener. 



REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



563 



This phrase stands for : 

II faut que vous alliez vous proniener, 

in which the preceding rule finds its application without difficulty. 

There are in French a great number of verbs which are used in the 
reflective form, although in English they do not admit of the reflective 
pronouns, one's self, myself, thyself, himself or herself, &c. They 
will be found in the following list. 



1107. A LIST OF VERBS WHICH ARE REFLECTIVE IN FRENCH, ALTHOUGH 
THEY DO NOT TAKE THIS FORM IN ENGLISH. 



S'abstenir, 


to abstain. 


S'evaporer, 


to evaporate. 


S'accorder, 


to agree. 


Se fletrir, 


to fade away. 


S'adresser, 


to apply. 


S'evanouir, 


to faint away. 


Se baigner, 


to bathe. 


S'endormir, 


to fall asleep. 


Se raidir, 


to bear up against. 


Se rendormir, 


to fall asleep again. 


Se facher, 


to be angry, to be 


S'acharner, 


to fall furiously 




offended. 




upon. 


Se liquefier, 


to become liquid. 


Se figurer, 


to fancy. 


Se mourir, 


to be dying. 


S'imaginer, 


(C 


S'empresser, 


" eager. 


Se remplumer, 


to new feather. 


S'eclipser, 


" eclipsed. 


S'attrouper, 


to flock in crowds. 


Se remplumer, 


to begin to thrive. 


S'ecouler, 


to flow out. 


S'attendrir, 


to be moved. 


S'envoler, 


to fly away. 


S'opiniatrer, 


" obstinate. 


S'emporter, 


to fly into a pas- 


Se degouter, 


" out of conceit 




sion. 




with. 


Se gangrener, 


to gangrene. 


Se renouveler, 


to be renewed. 


S'euivrer, 


to get intoxicated. 


Se resoudre, 


" resolved. 


Se paraliser, 


" palsied. 


Se faire, 


" silent. 


Se lever, 


" up. 


Se garder, 


to beware. 


S'ennuyer, 


" weary. 


S'epanouir, 


to blow. 


Se desister, 


to give over. 


Se vanter, 


to boast. 


Se demettre, 


. " up- 


Se dechainer, 


to break loose. 


S'en aller, 


to go away. 


S'enrhumer, 


to catch cold. 


Se coucher, 


" to bed. 


Se so'jcier, 


to care for. 


S'attrister, 


to grieve. 


Se plaindre, 


to complain. 


S'amender, 


to grow better. 


S'avancer, 


to come forward. 


S'enhardir, 


bold. 


S'aboucher, 


to confer. 


S'assoupir, 


" drowsy. 


Se figer, 


to congeal. 


Se familiariser, 


" familiar. 


Se glisser, 


to creep into. 


S'impatienter, 


" impatient. 


Se plaire, 


to delight in. 


Se radoucir, 


" milder. 


Se complaire, 


a 


S'appauvrir, 


" poor. 


S'appetisser, 


to diminish. 


S'enorgueillir, 


" proud. 


Se desister, 


to desist. 


S'enrichir, 


" rich. 


S'acquitter, 


to discharge. 


Se lasser, 


tired. 


S'entretenir, 


to discourse with 


Se guerir, 


to heal. 


Se defier, 


to distrust. 


S'enquerir, 


to inquire. 


Se determiner, 


to determine. 


S'entremettre, 


to intermeddle 


S'ecouler, 


to elapse. 


S'ingerer, 


c< 


S'efforcer, 


to endeavor. 


S'agenouiller, 


to kneel down. 


Se recrier, 


to exclaim. 


Se moquer, 


to laugh at. 


S'attendre, 


to expect. 


Se saisir, 


to lay hold of. 



564 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Se Uglier, 
S'accouder, 

S'appiiyer, 
Se depecher, 
Se hater, 
S 'evader, 

S'echapper, 

S'allier, 

Se marier, 
Se meler, 
Se fondre, 
Se meprendre, 
Se mefier, 
Se mutiner, 
S'opposer, 
Se deborder, 
Se farder, 
S'apercevoir, 
S'obstiner, 
Se putrefier, 
S'expatrier, 

Se revolter, 
Se dedire, 
Se rejouir, 
Se souvenir, 
Se ressouvenir, 
Se repentir, 
Se demettre, 



to league. 

to lean on one's 

elbow, 
to lean upon, 
to make haste. 

to make one's es- 
cape. 

to make one's es- 
cape. 

to make an alli- 
ance. 

to marry. 

to meddle with. 

to melt. 

to mistake. 

to mistrust. 

to mutiny. 

to oppose. 

to overflow. 

to paint. 

to perceive. 

to persist. 

to putrefy. 

to quit one's coun- 
try. 

to rebel. 

to recant. 

to rejoice. 

to remember. 



to repent 
to resign. 



Se retracter, 

S'endetter, 

S'enfuir, 

Se vendre, 

S'acheminer, 

S'apetisser, 

S'asseoir, 

S'attabler, 

Se glisser, 
S'arreter, 
S'esquiver, 
S'attacher, 
Se raidir, 
Se baisser, 
S'efforcer, 
Se debattre, 
Se soumettre, 
S'abonner, 
Se rendre, 
S'enteter, 

Se formaliser, 
Se piquer, 
Se refugier, 
Se reposer, 
S'enraciner, 
Se fier, 
Se promener, 
Se retirer, 
S'etonner, 
S'emerveiller, 



to retract, 
to run in debt, 
to run away, 
to sell, 
to set off. 
to shrink, 
to sit down. 
" " at the 

table, 
to slip, 
to stay, 
to steal away, 
to stick to. 
to stiffen. 
to stoop, 
to strive, 
to struggle, 
to submit, 
to subscribe, 
to surrender, 
to take a strong 

fancy, 
to take offence. 

" pet. 

" refuge. 

" rest. 

" root, 
to trust, 
to walk, 
to withdraw, 
to wonder. 



QUESTIONS. 



1104. What is a pronominal verb 1 

1104. When the nominative of a pronominal vei-b is a noun, in what number 
and person should the pronominal pronoun be used 1 

1105. Are not active verbs sometimes used in the impersonal and reflected 
form 1 What meaning have they then — active or passive t 

1105. With what auxiliary are reflected verbs conjugated 1 

1105. When, two verbs following one another, the second is in the infinitive 
mood and the reflected form, in what person should the reflected pronoun which 
precedes that infinitive be used 1 

1105. If the first of the two verbs were used impersonally, of what person 
should be the reflected pronoun placed before the infinitive following 1 

1105. Are there not in French a great number of verbs which assume the 
reflected form whilst they are deprived of it in English 1 

1107. (The verbs contained in this list should be learned by the pupils.) 



s 'aimer, to love one's self 



565 



CONJUGATION OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 

1108. S'AIMER, TO LOVE ONE'S SELF. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



to love one's self 
s 'aimer. 



PRESENT. 

not to love one's self 
ne pas s 'aimer. 



loving one's self 
s'aimant. 



PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

not loving one's self 
ne s'aimant pas. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

to Lave loved one's self not to have loved one's self 

s'etre aime. ne pas s'etre aime. 



having loved one's self 
s'etant aime. 



COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. 

not having loved one's self 
ne s'etant pas aime. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Affirmative. 

I love myself, &c. 

je m'aime 
tu t'aimes 
il or elle s'aime 

nous nous aimons 

vous vous aimez 

ils or elles s'ai- 
ment. 



PRESENT. 

Negative. Interrogative. Negative and Inter- 

rogative. 
I love not myself, do I love myself 1 do I not love my- 
&c. &c. self? &c. 



je ne nraime pas 
tu ne t'aimes pas 
il or elle ne s'aime 

pas 
nous ne nous ai- 
mons pas 
vous ne vous ai- 
mez pas 
ils or elles ne s'ai- 
ment pas. 



ne m'aime-je pas 
ne t'aimes-tu pas 
ne s'aime-t-il or elle 

pas 
ne nous aimons- 

nous pas 
ne vous aimez-vous 

pas 
s'aiment-ils or dies'? ne s'aiment-ils or 

elles pas *? 



m aime-je 
t'aimes-tu 
s'aime-t-il or elle 

nous aimons-nous 

vous aimez-vous 



IMPERFECT. 



loved myself, &c. I did not love my- did I love myself 1 did I not love my- 



self, &c. 



&c. 



je m'airnais 
tu t'aimais 
il or elle s'aimait 



48 



je ne m aimais pas m'aimais-je 

tu ne t'aimais pas t'ahnaie-tu 

il or elle ne s'aimait s'aimait-il or elle 

pas 



self? &c. 
ne m'aimais-je pas 
ne t'aimais-tu pas 
ne s'aimait-il or elle 

pas 



566 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous nous aimions nous ne nous anni- nous aunions-nous 

ons pas 

vous vous aimiez vous ne vous aimiez vous aimiez-vous 

pas 

ils or elles s'ai- ils or elles ne s'ai- s'aimaient-ils or 

maient. maient pas. elles 1 



ne nous aimions- 

nous pas 
ne vous aimiez- 

vous pas 
ne s'aimaient-ils or 

elles pas 1 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 



I did love myself, I did not love my- 



&c. 

je m'aimai 
tu t'aimas 
il or elle s'aima 

nous nous aimames 

vous vous aimates 

ils or elles s'ai- 
merent. 



self, &c. 
je ne m'aimai pas 
tu ne t'aimas pas 
il or elle ne s'aima 

pas 
nous ne nous ai- 
mames pas 
vous ne vous ai- 
mates pas 
ils or elles ne s'ai- 
merent pas. 



did I love myself? did I not love my- 

&c. self? &c. 

m'aimai-je ne m'aimai-je pas 

t'aimas-tu ne t'aimas-tu pas 

s'aima-t-il or elle ne s'aima-t-ilor elle 

pas 
nous aimames-nous ne nous aimames- 

nous pas 
vous aimates-vous ne vous aimates- 

vous pas 
s'aimerent-ils or ne s'aimerent-ils or 
elles 1 elles pas 1 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



I have loved mv- 

self, &c. 
je me suis aime, ee 

tu t'es aime, ee 

il or elles'est aime, 

ee 
nous nous sommes 

aimes, ees 

vous vous etes 

aimes, ees 
ils or elles se sont 

aimes, ees. 



I have not loved 

myself, &c. 
je ne me suis pas 

aime, ee 
tu ne t'es pas aime, 

ee 
il or elle ne s'est 

pas aime, ee 
nous ne nous 

sommes pas 

aimes, ees 
vous ne vous etes 

pas aimes, ees 
ils or elles ne se 

sont pas aimes, 

ees. 



have I loved my- 
self? &c. 

me suis-je aime, 
ee 

t'es-tu aime, ee 

s'est-il or elle 

aime, ee 
nous sommes-nous 

aimes, ees 

vous etes-vous 

aimes, ees 
se sont-ils or elles 

aimes, ees 1 



have I not loved 

myself? &c. 
ne me suis-je pas 

aime, ee 
ne t'es-tu pas aime, 

ee 
ne s'est-il or elle 

pas aime, ee 
ne nous sommes- 
nous pas aimes, 

ees 
ne vous etes-vous 

pas aimes, ees 
ne se sont-ils or elles 

pas aimes, ees 1 



PLUPERFECT. 



I had loved myself, 

&c. 
je m'etais aime,ee 

tu t'etais aime, ee 

il or elle s'etait 

aime, ee 
nous nous etions 

aimes, ees 
vous vous etiez 

aimes, ees 
ils or elles s'etaient 

aimes, ees. 



I had not loved 

myself, &c. 
je ne m'etais pas 

aime, ee 
tu ne t'etais pas 

aime, ee 
il or elle ne s'etait 

pas aime, ee 
nous ne nous etions 

pas aimes, ees 
vous ne vous etiez 

pas aimes, ees 
ils or elles ne s'e- 
taient pas aimes, 

ees. 



had I loved myself? 

&c. 
m'etais-je aime,ee 

t'etais-tu aime, ee 

s'etait-il or elle 

aime, ee 
nous etions-nous 

aimes, ees 
vous etiez-vous 

aimes, ees 
s'etaient-ils or elles 

aimes, ees ? 



had I not loved 

myself? &c. 
ne m'etais-je pas 

aime, ee 
ne t'etais-tu pas 

aime, ee 
ne s'etait-il or elle 

pas aime, ee 
ne nous etions-nous 

pas aimes, ees 
ne vous etiez-vous 

pas aimes, ees 
ne s'etaient-ils or 

elles pas aimes, 



S AIMER, TO LOVE OSES SELF. 



567 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 



I had loved myself, 

&c. 
je me fus aime, ee 

tu te fus aime, ee 

il or elle se fut 

aime, ee 
nous nous fumes 

aimes, ees 
vuus vous fiites 

aimes, ees 
ils or elles se furent 

aimes, ees. 



I had not loved 

myself, &c. 
je ne me fus pas 

aime, ee 
tu ne te fus pas 

aime, ee 
il or elle ne se fut 

pas aime, ee 
nous ne nous fumes 

pas aimes, ees 
vous ne vous futes 

pas aimes, ees 
ils or elles ne se 

furent pas aimes, 

ees. 



had I loved my- 
self 1 &c. 
me fus-je aime, ee 

te fus-tu aime, ee 

se fut-il or elle 

aime, ee 
nous fumes-nous 

aimes, ees 
vous futes-vous 

aimes, ees 
se furent-ils or elles 

aimes, ees 1 



had I not loved 

myself? &c. 
ne me fus-je pas 

aime, ee 
ne te fus-tu pas 

aime, ee 
ne se fut-il or elle 

pas aime, ee 
ne nous fumes-nous 

pas aimes, ees 
ne vous futes-vous 

pas aimes, ees 
ne se furent-ils or 

elles pas aimes, 

eesl 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 



I shall or will love 
myself, &c. 



I shall or will not 
love myself, &c. 



je m'aimerai je ne m'aimerai pas 

tu t'aimeras tu ne t'aimeras pas 

il or elle s'aiinera il or elle ne s'ai- 

mera pas 
nous nous aimerous nous ne nous aime- 

rons pas 



shall or will I love 

myself? &c. 
m'aimerai-je 
t'aimeras-tu 
s'aimera-t-il or elle 



shall or will I not 
love myself? &c. 



ne m aimerai-je pas 
ne t'aimeras-tu pas 
ne s'aimera-t-il or 

elle pas 
nous aimerons-nous ne nous aimerons- 

nous pas 



vous vous aimerez vous ne vous aime- vous aimerez-vous 



i or elles s'aime- 
ront. 



rez pas 
ils or elles ne s'ai- 
meront pas. 



s'aimeront-ils 
elles 1 



ne vous aimerez- 

vous pas 
ne s'aimeront-ils or 

elles pas 1 



FUTURE ANTERIOR. 



I shall or will have 
loved mvself, 
&c. 

ie me serai aime, 

J ee 

tu te serasaime, ee 

il or elle se sera 

aime, ee 
nous nous serons 

aimes, ees 
vous vous serez 

aimes, ees 
ils or elles se seront 

aimes, ees. 



I shall or will not 
have loved my- 
self, &c. 

je ne me serai pas 
aime, ee 

tu ne te seras pas 
aime, ee 

il or elle ne se sera 
pas aime, ee 

nous ne nous serons 
pas aimes, ees 

vous ne vous serez 
pas aimes, ees 

ils or elles ne se 
seront pas aimes, 
ees. 



shall or will I have 
loved myself? 
&c. 

me serai-je aime, 
ee 

te seras-tu aime,ee 

se sera-t-il or elle 

aime, ee 
nous serons-nous 

aimes, ees 
vous serez-vous 

aimes, ees 
se seront-ils or elles 

aimes, ees 1 



shall or will I not 
have loved my- 
self 1 &c. 

ne me serai-je pas 
aime, ee 

ne te seras-tu pas 
aime, ee 

ne se sera-t-il or 
elle pas aime, ee 

ne nous serons-nous 
pas aimes, ees 

ne vous serez-vous 
pas aimes, ees 

ne se seront-ils or 
elles pas aimes, 
ees 1 



568 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
love myself, &c. 

je m'aimerais 

tu t'aimerais 

il or elle s'aimerait 

nous nous aime- 

rions 
• vous vous aimeriez 

ils or elles s'aime- 
raient. 



I should, would, should, would, 

could, or might could, or might 

not love myself, I love myself? 

&c. &c. 

je ne m'aimerais m'aimerais-je 

pas 

tu ne t'aimerais t'aimerais-tu 

pas 

il or elle ne s'aime- s'aimerait-il or elle 

rait pas 

nous ne nous aiine- nous aimerions- 

rions pas nous 

vous ne vous aime- vous aimeriez-vous 

riez pas 
ils or elles ne s'ai- s'aimeraient-ils or 

meraient pas. elles 1 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not love my- 
self? &c. 

ne m'aimerais-je 
pas 

ne t'aimerais-tu 
pas 

ne s'aimerait-il or 
elle pas 

ne nous aimerions- 
nous pas 

ne vous aimeriez- 
vous pas 

ne s'aimeraient-ils 
or elles pas 1 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have loved my- 
self, &c. 

je me serais aime, 
ee 

tu te serais aime, 
ee 

il or elle se serait 
aime, ee 

nous nous serions 
aimes, ees 

vous vous seriez 

aimes, ees 
ils or elles se se- 

raient aimes, 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
not have loved 
myself, &c. 

je ne me serais 
pas aime, ee 

tu ne te serais pas 
aime, ee 

il or elle ne se se- 
rait pas aime, 
ee 

nous ne nous se- 
rions pas aimes, 
ees 

vous ne vous seriez 
pas aimes, ees 

ils or elles ne se 
seraient pas ai- 
mes, ees. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have loved 
myself? &c. 

me serais-je aime, 
ee 

te serais-tu aime, 
ee 

se serait-il or elle 
aime, ee 

nous serions-nous 
aimes, ees 

vous seriez-vous 

aimes, ees 
se seraient-ils or 

elles aimes, 

PftS 1 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have loved 
myself? &c. 

ne me serais-je pas 
aime, ee 

ne te serais-tu pas 
aime, ee 

ne se serait-il or 
elle pas aime,ee 

ne nous serions- 
nous pas aimes, 
ees 

ne vous seriez-vous 
pas aimes, ees 

ne se seraient-ils or 
elles pas aimes, 



love thyself, &c. 
aime-toi 
aimons-nous 
aimez-vous. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



do not love thyself, &c. 
ne t'aime pas 
ne nous aimons pas 
ne vous aimez pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



that I may love myself, &c. 

que je m'aime 

que tu t'aimes 

qu'il or qu'elle s'aime 



that I may not love myself, &c. 

que je ne m'aime pas 

que tu ne t'aimes pas 

qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aime pas 



S AIMER TO LOVE ONE S SELF. 



569 



que nous nous aimions 
que vous vous aimiez 
qu'ils or qu'elles s'aiment. 



que nous ne nous aimions pas 
que vous ne vous aimiez pas 
qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aiment pas. 



IMPERFECT. 



that 



dit love 



ilf, &c. 



que je m aimasse 
que tu t'aimasses 
qu'il or qu'elle s'aimat 
que nous nous aimassions 
que vous vous aimassiez 
qu'ils or qu'elles s'aimassent. 



that I might not love myself, &c. 
que je ne m'aimasse pas 
que tu ne t'aimasses pas 
qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aimat pas 
que nous ne nous aimassions pas 
que vous ne vous aimassiez pas 
qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aimassent pas. 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have loved myself, &c. 

que je me sois aime, ee 

que tu te sois aime, ee 

qu'il or qu'elle se soit aime, ee 

que nous nous soyons aimes, ees 

que vous vous soyez aimes, ees 
qu'ils or qu'elles se soient aimes, ees. 



that I may not have loved myself, &c. 

que je ne me sois pas aime, ee 

que tune te sois pas aime, ee 

qu'il or qu'elle ne se soit pas aime, ee 

que nous ne nous soyons pas aimes, 

ees 
que vous ne vous soyez pas aimes, ees 
qu'ils or qu'elles ne se soient pas 

aimes, ees. 



that I might have loved myself, &c. 
que je me fusse aime, ee 
que tu te fusses, aime, ee 
qu'il or qu'elle se fut aime, ee 
que nous nous fussions aimes, ees 

que vous vous fussiez aimes, ees 

qu'ils or qu'elles se fussent aimes, ees. 



PLUPERFECT. 

:. that I might not have loved myself, &c. 

que je ne me fusse pas aime, ee 
que tu ne te fusses pas aime, ee 
qu'il or qu'elle ne se fut pas aime, ee 
que nous ne nous fussions pas aimes, 

ees 
que vous ne vous fussiez pas aimes, 

ees 
qu'ils or qu'elles ne se fussent pas 

aimes, ees. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



FIRST CONJUGATION. 

1109. Irregular verbs, as we have already stated, are those which 
differ, in some of their tenses and persons, from those which we have 
given as models of the four regular conjugations. 

Whatever may be the irregularity of a verb, it is irregular only in 
its simple tenses ; the compound are all regular ; therefore, we shall 
suppress them in the following conjugations, as well as those deriva- 
tive tenses which are regularly formed from the primitive. 

There are only four irregular verbs in the first conjugation. They 
are tV following : 

48* 



570 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Aller, 
S'en alter, 
Envoyer, 
Renvoyer, 



to go. 

to go away. 

to send. 

to send back. 



1110. ALLER, TO GO. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
alter. 


Present Participle. 
allant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle. 
alle. 


Present. 


je vais tu vas 


il va 
ils vont. 


Preterite Definite. 


'allai tu alias 
nous allames vous allates 


il alia 

ils or elles allerent 


Future Absolute. 


'irai, &c. 








CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Present. 



Present. 



j'irais, &c. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

va. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que j'aille que tu ailles 



qu'il aille 
qu'ils aillent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary 
verb etre, to be. 

1111. Remark. Although the verb alter takes the auxiliary etre in 
its compound tenses, yet, when the idea intended to be expressed is, 
that a person has been to a certain place, but has returned from it, 
we substitute for this verb the compound tenses of the verb to be ; the 
verb alter expressing only the fact of a person's having gone some- 
where, without implying the idea of returning : as in, 

f Jean a ete a l'ecole ce matin. (He has 
T , , , , ... . ! been, but has returned.) 

John has gone to school this morning. \ Jean ^ ^ h p - co , e ce ' mat i„. (He 

I has gone, but has not returned.) 

We use the verb alter to express the idea of going to see a person, 
when, while speaking, we are out of the house of the person we 
intend to visit ; but, if in the house, the verb venir ought to be 
employed ; as in, 

I will go and see you to-morrow. J 'irai vous voir demain. (Being out 

of the house.) 
I will come and see you to-morrow. Je viendrai vous voir demain. (While 

in the house.) 



SEN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. 571 

Thus, aller signifies to go from where we are to any other place, 
and venir signifies to come again to the place where the person is who 
speaks. 



1112. S'EN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. 

This verb presenting some difficulty to foreigners, we shall conju- 
gate it in all its tenses, and in the affirmative, negative, interrogative, 
and negative and interrogative forms. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

to go away not to go away 

s'en aller. ne pas s'en aller. 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 

going away not going away 

s'en allant. ne s'en allant pas. 

PAST PARTICIPLE. 

gone away 
en alle. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. 

to have gone away not to have gone away 

s'en etre alle. ne s'en etre pas alle. 

COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. 

having gone away not having gone away 

s'en etant alle. ne s'en etant pas alle. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. Negative and Inter' 

rogative. 

I go away, &c. J do not go awav, do I go away 1 &c. do I not go away "? 

&c &c. 

je m'en vais je ne m'en vais pas m'en vais-je ne m'en vais-je pas 

tu t'en vas tu ne t'en vas pas t'en vas-tu ne t'en vas-tu pas 

il s'en va il ne s'en va pas s'en va-t-il ne s'en va-t-il pas 

nous nous en allons nous ne nous en nous en allons-nous ne nous en allons- 

allons pas nous pas 

vous vous en allez vous ne vous en vous en allez-vous ne vous en allez- 

allez pas vous pas 

ils s'en vont. ils ne s'en vont pa6. s'en vont-ils 1 ne e'en vont-ils pas *? 



572 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



I was going away, 

&c. 
je m'en allais 
ta t'en allais 
il s'en allait 
nous nous en allions 

vous vous en alliez 

ils s'en allaient. 



IMPERFECT. 

1 was not going was I going away 1 

away, &c. &c. 

je ne m'en allais pas m'en allais-je 

tu ne t'en allais pas t'en allais-tu 

il ne s'en allait pas s'en allait-il 

nous ne nous en nous en allions-nous 

allions pas 

vous ne vous en vous en alliez-vous 

alliez pas 

ils ne s'en allaient s'en allaient-ils 1 

pas. 



was I not going 

away 'i &c. 
ne m'en allais-je pas 
ne t'en allais-tu pas 
ne s'en allait-il pas 
ne nous en allions- 
nous pas 
ne vous en alliez- 
vous pas 
ne s'en allaient-ils 



PRETERITE DEFINITE. 

I did go away, &c. I did not go away, did I go away 1 &c. 
&c. 

je ne m'en allai pas m'en allai-je 

tu ne t'en alias pas t'en allas-tu 

il ne s'en alia pas s'en alla-t-il 

nous ne nous en nous en allames- 



je m'en allai 
tu t'en alias 
il s'en alia 



nous nous en 

allames 
vous vous en allates 

ils s'en allerent. 



allames pas 
vous ne vous en 

allates pas 
ils ne s'en allerent 

pas. 



nous 
vous en allates-vous 



s'en allerent-ils 1 



did I not go away 1 

&c. 
ne m'en allai-je pas 
ne t'en allas-tu pas 
ne s'en alla-t-il pas 
ne nous en allames- 

nous pas 
ne vous en allates- 
vous pas 
ne s'en allerent-ils 



PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 



I have gone awav. 

&c. 
je m'en suis alle 

tu t'en es alle 

il s'en est alle 

nous nous en 
sommes alles 

vous vous en etes 
alles 

ils s'en sont alles. 



I have not gone 

away, &c. 
je ne m'en suis pas 
J alle 
tu ne t'en es pas 

alle 
il ne s'en est pas 

alle 
nous ne nous en 

sommes pas alles 
vous ne vous en 6tes 

pas alles 
ils ne s'en sont pas 

alles. 



have I gone away 1 

&c. 
m'en suis-je alle 

t'en es-tu alle 

s'en est-il alle 

nous en sommes- 

nous alles 
vous en etes-vous 

alles 
s'en sont-ils alles 1 



have I not gone 

away 1 &c. 
ne m'en suis-ie pas 

alle J 

ne t'en es-tu pas 

alle 
ne s'en est-il pas 

alle 
ne nous en sommes- 

nous pas alles 
ne vous en etes- 
vous pas alles 
ne s'en sont-ils pas 

alles 1 



PLUPERFECT. 

I had gone away, I had not gone had I gone away 1 

&c. away, &c. &c. 

je m'en etais alle je ne m'en etais m'en etais-je alle 

pas alle 

tu t'en etais alle tu ne t'en etais t'en etais-tu alle 

pas alle 

il s'en etait alle il ne s'en etait pas s'en etait-il alle 

alle 

nous nous en etions nous ne nous en nous en etions-nous 

alles etions pas alles alles 

vous vous en etiez vous ne vous en vous en etiez-vous 

alles etiez pas alles alles 

ils s'en etaient ils ne s'en etaient s'en etaient-ils 
alles. pas alles. alles 1 



had I not gone 
away 1 &c. 

ne m'en etais-je pas 
alle 

ne t'en etais-tu pas 
alle 

ne s'en etait-il pas 
alle 

ne nous en etions- 
nous pas alles 

ne vous en etiez- 
vous pas alles 

ne s'en etaient-ils 
pas alles 1 



S EN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. 



573 



PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 

I had gone away, I had not gone had I gone away 1 had I not gone 

&c. away, &c. &c. away!&c. 

je m'en fus alle je ne m'en fus pas rn'en fus-je alle ne m'en fus-je pas 

alle alle 

tu t'en fus alle tu ne t'en fus pas t'en fus-tu alle ne t'en fus-tu pas 

alle alle 

il s'en fut alle il ne s'en fut pas s'en fut-il alle ne s'en fut-il pas 

alle alle 

nous nous en fumes nous ne nous en nous en fumes-nous ne nous en fumes- 

alles fumes pas alles alles nous pas alles 

vous vous en futes vous ne vous en vous en futes-vous ne vous en futes- 

alles futes pas alles alles vous pas alles 

ils s'en furent alles. ils ne s'en furent s'en furent-ils ne s'en furent-ils 

pas alles. alles 1 pas alles 1 



So 



I shall or wi 
away, &c. 
je m'en irai 
tu t'en iras 
il s'en ira 
nous nous en irons 

vous vous en irez 

ils s'en iront. 



I shall or w ill have 
gone away, &c. 

je m'en serai alle 
tu t'en seras alle 
il s'en sera alle 

nous nous en serons 

alles 
vous vous en serez 

alles 
ils s'en seront alles. 



FUTURE ABSOLUTE. 

I shall or will not shall or will I go 

go away, &c. away ! &c. 

je ne m'en irai pas m'en irai-je 

tu ne t'en iras pas t'en iras-tu 
il ne s'en ira pas 
nous ne nous en 



s'en ira-t-il 

nous en irons-nous 



irons pas 
vous ne vous 



en vous en irez-vous 



irez pas 
ils ne s'en iront 
pas. 

FUTURE 

I shall or will not 
have gone away, 



&c. 
je ne m'en serai pas 

alle 
tu ne t'en seras pas 

alle 
il ne s'en sera pas 

alle 
nous ne nous en 

serons pas alles 
vous ne vous en 

serez pas alles 
ils ne s'en seront 

pas alles. 



s'en iront-ils 1 

ANTERIOR. 

shall or will I have 
gone away ! &c. 

m'en serai-je alle 
t'en seras-tu alle 
s'en sera-t-il alle 

nous en serons- 

nous alles 
vous en serez-vous 

alles 
s'en seront-ils 

alles 1 



shall or will I not 

go away % &c. 
ne m'en irai-je pas 
ne t'en iras-tu pas 
ne s'en ira-t-il pas 
ne nous en irons- 
nous pas 
ne vous en irez- 
vous pas 
ne s'en iront-ils 
pas 1 



shall or will I not 
have gone away 1 
&c. 

ne m'en serai-ie pas 
alle J 

ne t'en seras-tu pas 
alle 

ne s'en sera-t-il pas 
alle 

ne nous en serons- 
nous pas alles 

ne vous en serez- 
vous pas alles 

ne s'en seront-ils 
pas alles 1 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
go away, &c. 

je m'en irais 

tu t'en irais 

il s'en irait 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

I should, would, should, would, 
could, or might could, or might 
not go away, &.c. I go away! &c. 
je ne m'en irais pas m'en irais-je 
tu ne t'en irais pas t'en irais-tu 
il ne s'en irait pa3 s'en irait-il 



should, would, 
could, or might I 
not go away! &c. 
ne m'en irais-je pas 
ne t'en irais-tu pas 
ne s'en irait-il pas 



574 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



nous nous en mons nous ne nous en nous en mons-nous ne nous en mons- 
irions pas nous pas 

vous vous en iriez vous ne vous en vous en iriez-vous ne vous en iriez- 
iriez pas vous pas 

ils s'en iraient. ils ne s'en iraient s'en iraient-ils ? ne s'en iraient-ils 

pas. pas 1 



I should, would, 
could, or might 
have gone away, 
&c. 

je m'en serais alle 

tu t'en serais alle 
il s'en serait alle 

nous nous en 
serions alles 

vous vous en seriez 
alles 

ils s'en seraient 
alles. 



I should, would, 

could, or might 

not have gone 

away, &c. 
je ne m'en serais 

pas alle 
tu ne t'en serais pas 

alle 
il ne s'en serait pas 

alle 
nous ne nous en 

serions pas alles 
vous ne vous en 

seriez pas alles 
ils ne s'en seraient 

pas alles. 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I have gone 
away 1 &c. 

m'en serais-je alle 

t'en serais-tu alle 
s'en serait-il alle 

nous en serions- 

nous alles 
vous en seriez-vous 

alles 
s'en seraient-ils 

alles 1 



should, would, 
could, or might 
I not have gone 
away 1 &c. 

ne m'en serais-je 
pas alle 

ne t'en serais-tu 
pas alle 

ne s'en serait-il 
pas alle 

ne nous en serions- 
nous pas alles 

ne vous en seriez- 
vous pas alles 

ne s'en seraient-ils 
pas alles 1 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



go away, &c. 
va-t-en 
allons-nous en 
allez-vous en. 



do not go away, &c. 
ne t'en vas pas 
ne nous en allons pas 
ne vous en allez pas. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT. 



that I may go away, &c. 

que je m'en aille 

que tu t'en ailles 

qu'il s'en aille 

que nous nous en allions 

que vous vous en alliez 

qu'ils s'en aillent. 



that I may not go away, &c. 
que je ne m'en aille pas 
que tu ne t'en ailles pas 
qu'il ne s'en aille pas 
que nous ne nous en allions pas 
que vous ne vous en alliez pas 
qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas. 



IMPERFECT. 



that I might go away, &c. 

que je m'en allasse 

que tu t'en allasses 

qu'il s'en allat 

que nous nous en allassions 

que vous vous en allassiez 

qu'ils s'en allassent. 



that I might not go away, &c. 

que je ne m'en allasse pas 

que tu ne t'en allasses pas 

qu'il ne s'en allat pas 

que nous ne nous en allassions pas 

que vous ne vous en allassiez pas 

qu'ils ne s'en allassent pas. 



ENVOYEK, TO SEA'D. 



575 



PRETERITE. 



that I may have gone away, &c. 

que je m'en sois alle 

que tu t'en sois alle 

qu'il s'en soit alle 

que nous nous en soyons alles 

que vous vous en soyez alles 

qu'ils s'en soient alles. 



that I may not have gone away, &c. 

que je ne m'en sois pas alle 

que tu ne t'en sois pas alle 

qu'il ne s'en soit pas alle 

que nous ne nous en soyons pas alles 

que vous ne vous en soyez pas alles. 

qu'ils ne s'en soient pas alles. 



PLUPERFECT. 



that I might have gone away, &c. 

que je tn'en fusse alle 

que tu t'en fusses alle 

qu'il s'en fut alle 

que nous nous eu fussions alles 

que vous vous eu fussiez alles 

qu'ils s'en fussent alles. 



that I might not have gone away, &c. 

que je ne m'en fusse pas alle 

que tu ne t'en fusses pas alle 

qu'il ne s'en fut pas alle 

que nous ne nous en fussions pas alles 

que vous ne vous en fussiez pas alles 

qu'ils ne s'en fussent pas alles. 





1113. ENVOYER, TO SEND. 






INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


envoyer. 


envoyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD 


envoy e. 


Present. 


j'envoie tu envoies 


il envoie. 


Preterite Definite. 


j'envoyai tu envoyas 
nous envoyames vous envoyates 


il envoya 

ils envoyerent 


Future. 


j'enverrai, &c. 





CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

Present. j'enverrais, &c. 

Conjugate after the same manner the verb renvoyer, to send back. 
These two verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. 

We have seen that defective verbs are those which are not used in 
all their tenses and persons. 

The following verbs are not only defective, but impersonal also, 
that is to sav, they are used only in the third person singular of each 
tense. 



Neiger, 

Arriver, 

Bruiner, 

Degeler, 

Eclairer, 

Geler, 

Greler, 

Gresiller, 

Importer, 

Resulter, 

Tonner, 



to snow. 

to happen. 

to drizzle. 

to thaw. 

to lighten, (speaking of the weather.) 

to freeze. 

to hail. 

to rime. 

to matter. 

to follow. 

to thunder, (speaking of the weather.) 



576 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1114. NEWER, TO SNOW. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


neiger. 


neigeant. 


neige. 




INDICATIVE 


MOOD. 




Present. 


il neige, 




it snows. 


Imperfect. 


il neigeait, 




it snowed. 


Preterite Definite. 


il neigea, 




it did snow. 


Preterite Indefinite. 


il a neige, 




it has snowed. 


Pluperfect. 


il avait neige, 




it had snowed. 


Preterite Anterior. 


il eut neige, 




it had snowed. 


Future Absolute. 


il neigera, 




it shall or will snow. 


Future Anterior. 


il aura neige, 




it shall or will have snowed. 




CONDITIONAL 


MOOD. 




Present. 


il neigerait, 




it should, &c., snow. 


Past. 


il aurait neige, 




it should, &c, have snowed. 




SUBJUNCTIVE 


MOOD. 




Present. 


qu'il neige, 




that it may snow. 


Imperfect. 


qu'il neigeat, 




that it might snow. 


Preterite. 


qu'il ait neige, 




that it may have snowed. 


Pluperfect. 


qu'il eut neige, 




that it might have snowed. 



All the verbs contained in the list of defective and impersonal verbs 
on the preceding page are conjugated like neiger. 



IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF THE SECOND 
CONJUGATION. 

1115. ACQUERIR, TO ACQUIRE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


acquerir. 


acquerant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


acquis. 


Present. 


j'acquiers tu acquiers 


il acquiert 
ils acquierent. 


Preterite Definite. 


j 'acquis tu acquis 
nous acqiumes vous acquites 


il acquit 

ils acquirent. 


Future. 


j'acquerrai, &c. 





BOUILLIR, TO BOIL. 577 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

Present. j'acquerrais, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que j'acquiere que tu acquires qu'il acquieie 

qu'ils acquierent. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 

have. 

The following verbs are conjugated in the same manner : 

Conquerir, to conquer. 

Querir, to fetch. 

Reconquerir, to conquer again. 

Requerir, to require. 

S'enquerir, to inquire. 

Of these verbs : 

1116. Conquerir is defective, and only used in the present of the 
infinitive, preterite definite, imperfect of the subjunctive, past parti- 
ciple, and all the compound tenses. 

Querir is only used in the present of the infinitive, with the verbs 
aller, envoyer, and venir ; but the compound expressions which it 
forms with these verbs are rarely employed by well-educated people. 

Reconquerir is used only in the same tenses as conquerir. 

S'enquerir is used in the present of the infinitive, preterite definite, 
imperfect of the subjunctive, past participle, and all the compound 
tenses. (Not much used.) 



1117. ASSAILLIR, TO ASSAULT. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

assaillir. assaillant. assailli. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. j'assaille til assailles il assaille. 

Preterite Definite, j'assaille tu assaillis il assaillit 

nous assaillimes vous assaillites ils assaillirent. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. Conjugate after the same manner Iressaillir, to start. 



1118. BOUILLIR, TO BOIL. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

bouillir. bouillant. bouilli 

49 



578 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

je bous tu bous 



Preterite Definite, je bouillis 

nous bouillimes 



tu bouillis 
vous bouillites 



il bout. 

il bouillit 

ils bouillirent. 



The compound tenses of bouillir are conjugated with the auxiliary 
avoir, to have. 

Conjugate after the same manner : 



Eboaillir, 

Rebouillir, 



to boil away. (Not used.) 
to boil again. 



These three verbs are not much used, except in the third persons 
of their several tenses, simple and compound. If any other person of 
those verbs is wanted, we use the verb faire, to make, with the infini- 
tive ; as in, 
I am boiling peas. Jefais bouillir des pois. 

But, in the passive sense of the verb to boil, bouillir is properly used 
in all its persons ; as in, 

I am, I was, boiling with anger. Je bous, je bouillais, de colere. 



1119. COURIR, TO RUN. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present 


Participle. 


Past Participle 


courir. 


courant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


couru. 


Present. 


je coura 


tu cours 


il court. 


Preterite Definite. 


je courus 
nous courumes 


tu courus 
vous courutes 


il courut 

ils coururent. 


Future Absolute. 


je courrai, &c. 








CONDITIONAL MOOD. 





Present. je courrais, &c. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the verb 
avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 
Accourir, 
Concourir, 
Discourir, 
Encourir, 
Parcourir, 
Recourir, 
Secourir, 

The compound tenses of the verb accourir are sometimes conjugated 
with etre, to be. 



to run to. 

to concur. 

to discourse. 

to incur. — 

to run over. 

to have recourse. 

to help. 



D0RM1R, TO SLEEP. 



579 



Present. 
cueillir. 



1120. CUEILLIR, TO GATHER. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Participle 
cueillant. 



Past Participle. 
cueilli. 



Present. 



Preterite Definite, je cueillis 

nous cueillmies 

Future Absolute. je cueillerai, &c. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

je cueille tu cueilles 

tu cueillis 
vous cueillites 



il ceuille. 

il cueillit 

ils cueillirent. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



je cueillerais, &c. 



The compound tenses of this and the following verbs are conjugated 
with avoir, to have. 



Accueillir, 
Recueillir, 



to welcome. 

to gather, to reap. 



These verbs are conjugated after the same manner as cueillir. 



Present. 
dormir. 



1121. DORMIR, TO SLEEP. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Participle. 
dormant. 



Past Participle. 
dormi. 



Present. 



je dors 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

tu dors 



Preterite Definite, je dormis 

nous dormlmes 



tu dormis 
vous dormites 



il dort. 



il dormit 

ils dormi rent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have, as well as those of the following : 



Endormir, 
Redormir, 

The two reflective verbs : 



to lull asleep, 
to sleep again. 



S'endormir, 
Se rendormir, 



to fall asleep, 

to fall asleep again, 



have their compound tenses conjugated with elre, to be, as all other 
reflective verbs. 



580 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1122. FAILLIR, TO FAIL. 

This verb is defective, and only used in the tenses of the infinitive 
mood, the preterite definite, and its derivative, the imperfect of the 
subjunctive, as well as in all the compound tenses. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

faillir. faillant. failli. 

Preterite Definite, je faillis tu faillis il faillit 

nous faillimes vous faillites ils faillirent. 

Imperfect of the que je faillisse que tu faillisses qu'il faillit 

Subjunctive. que nous faillis- que vous faillissiez qu'ils faillissent. 

sions 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. 



1123. FLEURIR, TO BLOSSOM, TO FLOURISH. 

This verb is regular in all its tenses and persons, when it means to 
blossom; but when used figuratively, and meaning to flourish, it 
makes its present participle florissant, and its imperfect fiorissais, &c. 
Thus we say : 

The arts were flourishing at Rome. Les arts florissaient a Rome. 

Commerce being flourishing, the city Le commerce florissant, la ville parait 
appears lively. gaie. 

Refleurir, to flourish again, follows the same rule. These two 
verbs are conjugated with avoir, to have. 



1124. FUIR, TO FLY. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

fuir. fuyant. fui. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je fuis tu fuis il fuit 

Preterite Definite, je fuis tu fuis il fuit 

nou3 fuimes vous fuites ils fuirent. 



M0UR1R, TO DIE. 



581 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. 

Conjugate in the same manner s'enfuir, to run away, with the verb 
etre, to be, in its compound tenses. 



1125. GESIR, TO LIE. 

This verb is defective, and no longer in use ; but we still say, il git, 
he lies, ci-glt, here lies, and gissant, lying, in obituary sentences. 



1126. HAIR, TO HATE. 

This verb is regular, except in the singular of the present of the 
indicative, in which the diaeresis is suppressed, as well as in the 
second person singular of the imperative ; as in, 



Je hais 



tu hais, 



il hait ; 



hais. 



It is conjugated with avoir, to have. 

The diaeresis, placed over the i, causes this letter to be sounded by 
itself, and prevents its being joined to the preceding vowel in the pro- 
nunciation . 



1127. MOURIR, TO DIE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Present Participle. 



mounr. 



mourant. 



Past Participle. 
mort. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je meurs tu meurs 

Preterite Definite, je mourus tu mourus 

nous mourumes vous mourutes 

Future Absolute. je mourrai, &c. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

Present. je mourrais, &c. 



il meurt 
ils meurent. 

il raourut 

ils moururent. 



Present. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je raeure que tu meures 

49* 



qu'il meure 
qu'ils meurent. 



582 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



The verb is conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. The 
reflective verb se mourir is conjugated like the preceding. 



1128. OUIR, TO HEAR. 

This verb is only used now in the preterite definite, in the imper- 
fect of the subjunctive, in the infinitive, and all its compound tenses ; 
as in, 



il ouit, 



que j'ou'isse, qu'il ouit, ou'ir, j'ai ou'i, &c. 



with the auxiliary, avoir, to have. 

The signification of this verb is far from being so extended as that 
of entendre; it is said only of a temporary sound which we hear by 
chance and without design. We must not use it in speaking of a 
minister, a lawyer, a speech ; but we say very properly : 



To hear the mass. 

O Lord ! deign to hear our prayer 



Ouir la masse. 

Seigneur ! daignez ou'ir nos pridre 



Speaking of a vague rumor, we say, 
I have heard it. Je Pai ou'i dire. 



1129. OUVRIR, TO OPEN. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 




Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


ouvrir. 




ouvrant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


ouvert. 


Present. 


j'ouvre 


tu ouvres 


il ouvre. 


Preterite Definite. 


j'ouvris tu ouvris 
nous ouvrlmes vous ouvrltes 


il ouvrit 

ils ouvrirent. 



Conjugate this verb and the following with the auxiliary avoir, to 
have : 



Rouvrir, 

Entr'ouvrir, 

Couvrir, 

Recouvrir, 

Decouvrir, 

Offrir, 

Mesoffrir, (not used,) 

Souffrir, 



to open again, 
to half open, 
to cover, 
to cover again, 
to discover, 
to offer, 
to underbid, 
to suffer. 



SERVIR, TO SERVE, 



583 



1130. SENTIR, TO FEEL. 









INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 






Present Participle. 


Past Particif. 


sentir. 






sentant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


senti. 


Present. 


j e 


sens 


tu sens 


il sent. 


Preterite Definite. 


je sentis tu sentis 
nous sentimes vous sentites 


il sentit 

ils sentirent. 



The tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to 
have. 



Conjugate in the same manner 

Consentir, 

Pressentir, 

Ressentir, 

Mentir, 

Dementir, 

Repartir, 

Conjugate with etrc, to be : 

Se ressentir, 

Se repentir, 

Partir, 

Repartir, 

Sortir, 

Ressortir, 



to consent, 
to foresee, 
to resent. 
to lie. 

to give the lie. 
to reply. 



to feel still. 

to repent. 

to set out, to depart. 

to set out again. 

to go out. 

to go out again. 



The two last verbs are sometimes also conjugated with avoir, to 
have. (See page 275, sec. 1043.) 



Present. 



1131. SERVIR, TO SERVE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
servant. 



Past Participle. 
servi. 



Present. 



je sers 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

tu sers 



Preterite Definite, je servis 

nous servi mes 



tu servis 
vous servites 



il sert. 

il servit 

ils servirent. 



This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have, as well as 



584 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



desseivir, to clear a table, to do an ill office to somebody. The reflec- 
tive verb se servir takes the auxiliary etre, to be. Asservir, a com- 
pound of servir, and meaning to subject, is regular, and is conjugated 
like finir. 



1132. TENIR, TO HOLD. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle 


tenir. 


tenant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


tenu. 


Present. 


je tiens tu tiens 


il tient 

ils tiennent. 


Preterite Definite. 


je tins tu tins 
nous tinmes vous tintes 


il tint 

ils tinrent. 


Future Absolute. 


je tiendrai, &c. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je tiendrais, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


que je tienne que tu tiennes 


qu'il tienne 
qu'ils tiennent 



The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, to have. 
Conjugate, after this manner : 



Appartenir,* 

Avenir, 

Circonvenir,* 

Contenir,* 

Contrevenir,* 

Convenir, 

Deprevenir,* 

Detenir, 

Devenir, 

Disconvenir, 

Entretenir,* 

Intervenir, 

Maintenir,* 

Mesavenir, 

Obtenir,* 



to belong, 
to happen, 
to circumvent, 
to contain, 
to contravene, 
to agree, 
to unprepossess. 
to detain, 
to become, 
to disagree, 
to entertain, 
to intervene, 
to maintain, 
to succeed ill. 
to obtain. 



Parvenir, 
Prevenir,* 

Provenir, 

Redevenir, 

Retenir,* 

Revenir, 

S'abstenir, 

Soutenir,* 

Se ressouvenir, 

Se souvenir, 

Subvenir, 

Survenir, 

Venir, 



to attain. 

to prevent, to in- 
form. 

to proceed from. 

to become again. 

to retain. 

to come back. 

to abstain. 

to sustain. 

to recollect. 

to remember. 

to relieve. 

to come unexpect- 
edly. 

to come. 



Those of the above verbs which are marked with an asterisk are 
conjugated with avoir, to have, and the others with etre, to be. 

Avenir, to happen, is only used in the third person singular of the 
present of the indicative, il avient, and in the past participle, avenu. 



VETIR, TO CLOTHE. 585 

Provenir, to proceed from, is only used in its third persons, singu- 
lar and plural, and in its compound tenses. 



1133. VETIR, TO CLOTHE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


vetir. 


vetant. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


vetu. 


Present . 


je vets tu vets 


il vet. 


Preterite Definite. 


je vetis tu velis 


il vetit 




nous vetimes vous vetites 


ils vetirent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, 
to have. 

Conjugate, in the same manner : 

Revetir, to clothe. 

De vetir, to strip, to undress. 

Se vetir, to dress. 

Se devetir, to divest one's self. 

The last two verbs, being reflective, are conjugated with etre, to be. 



1134. Remark. 
The verb benir, to bless, which is not included in this list, has two 
past participles, beni, e, speaking of persons, and benit, e, speaking of 
thmgs ; as in, 

Be blessed among all women. Soyez benie parmi toutes les femmes, 

(speaking of the Holy Virgin.) 
The promises of the courtiers are too Les premosses des grands ne sont trop 
often but court holy water. souvent que de l'eau benite de cour. 

When ressortir signifies to be under the jurisdiction of a court, and 
repartir means to divide, these two verbs are regular, and are conju- 
gated like Jinir; as in, 

This business was under the jurisdic- Cette affaire ressortissait a la cour, 
tion of the court. and not ressortait. 

When he returned to the army, he Quand il repartait pour l'armee, il re- 
divided his property among his partissait ses biens entre ses amis, 
friends. 

It must be remembered, that repartir, to start again, is written 
without any accent, but repartir, to divide, has an acute accent over 
the e. 



586 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

Ferir is only used in the infinitive, and in the following expression ; 

Without striking a blow. Sans coup ferir. 

Saillir, a term of architecture, has but the infinitive, present parti- 
ciple, saillanl, and the third persons, singular and plural, of the pres- 
ent of the indicative. When meaning to gush, to spout out, it has the 
same tenses, and the past participle, sailli, with all the compound 
tenses, but then it is conjugated like finir ; as in, 

This cornice projects too much. Cette corniche saille trop. 

The water gushed with much force. Les eaux saillissent avec beaucoup de 

force. 



IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF THE THIRD 
CONJUGATION. 

1135. AVOIR, TO HAVE. 

This verb, active and auxiliary, has been already conjugated in all 
its forms. 



RAVOIR, TO HAVE AGAIN. 

This verb, active and defective, is only used in the present of the 
infinitive. 



Y AVOIR, THERE TO BE. 
This verb, impersonal, has been conjugated in all its forms. 





1136. S'ASSEOIR, TO SIT 


DOWN. 




INFINITIVE MOOD. 






Present. 


Present Participle. 




Past Participle. 


s'asseoir 


s'asseyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 




assis. 


Present. 


je m'assieds tu t'assieds 




il s'assied. 


Preterite Definite. 


je m'assis tu t'assis 

nous nous assimes vous vous assites 


il s'assit 

ils e'assirent. 


Future Absolute. 


je m'assierai, or 
je m'asseyerai, &c. 







DECHOIR, TO DECAY. 



587 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



Present. 



je m'assi^rais, or 
je m'asseyerais, &c. 



This verb, like all reflective verbs, is conjugated with the auxiliary 
etre, to be. 

1137. The verb asseoir, used actively, is conjugated like the 
reflective, with the exception of the reflective pronouns, which must 
be suppressed, and then it takes avoir, to have, in its compound 
tenses. 

The Academy, as well as usage, permits this verb to be conjugated 
in the following manner : 







INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 
assoir. 




Present Participle. 
assoyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle 
assis. 


Present. 


j'assois 


tu assois 


il assoit. 


Preterite Definite. 


j 'assis tu assis 
nous assimes vous assites 


il assit 

ils assirent. 



These three modes of conjugating the verb asseoir are in use in 
France, and admitted by the Academy, but we recommend the first 
as the most generally adopted by people of education. 



1138. CHOIR, TO FALL. 

This verb is extremely defective, and used only in the present of 
the infinitive, and sometimes in the past participle and compound 
tenses ; but it is an old word, and ought to be avoided. 



1139. DECHOIR, TO DECAY. 



Present . 
dechoir. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. 
decheant. 



Past Participle. 
d6chu. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



je dechois 
nous dechoyons 

(\ot used.) 



tu dechois 
vous dechoyez 



il dechoit 
ils d^choient. 



588 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Preterite Definite, je dechus tu dechus il dechut 

nous dechumes vous dechutes ils dechurent. 

Future Present. (Not used.) 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 



(Not used.) 



Present. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

(Not used.) 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je dechoie que tu dechoies qu'il dechoie 

que nous de- que vous dechoyiez qu'ils dechoient. 
choyions 



This verb is conjugated with either of the auxiliaries, avoir or 
etre, according to the meaning of the sentence. 



1140. ECHOIR, TO EXPIRE, TO BE DUE, TO FALL, TO FALL 
DUE, TO BELONG. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
echoir. 


Present Participle. 
echeant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle 
echu. 


Present. 


j'echois 


tu echois 


il echoit 
ils echoient. 


Imperfect. 


(Not used.) 






Preterite Definite. 


j'echus 

nous echumes 


tu echus 
vous echutes 


il echut 

ils echurent. 


Future Present. 


j'echerrai, &c. 








CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


j'echerrais, &c. 








IMPERATIVE MOOD. 






(Not used.) 








SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 





Present. 



quej'echoie que tu echoies qu'il echoie 

que nous echoyions que vous echoyiez qu'ils echoient. 



This verb takes avoir or etre, according to the meaning of the 
sentence. 



MOUVOIR, TO MOVE. 



1141. FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. - 

(Impersonal. Corresponding to the English verb must.) 





infinitive mood. 




Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


falloir. 


fallant. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


fallu. 


Present. 


il faut. 




Preterite Definite. 


il fallut. 




Future Absolve. 


il faudra. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


il faudrait. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


qu'il faille. 





The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have, and in the third person singular only, the verb being impersonal. 

The English expressions, I must, he must, the king must, &c, are 
rendered by 

A-hich means literally 



II faut que je, 

II faut qu'il, 

II faut que le roi, 



It must that I, 

It must that he, 

It must that the king, 



that is to say, by il faut que followed by the nominative of the Eng- 
lish verb must; and the verb following is used in the subjunctive 
mood, in a tense corresponding to that of the verb falloir in the prin- 
cipal proposition. 





1142. 


MOUVOIR, TO MOVE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 




Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


mouvoir. 




mouvant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


mu. 


sent. 


je meus 


tu meus 


il meut 

ils meuvent. 


erite Definite. 


je mus tu mus 
nous mumes vous mutes 


il mut 

ils murent. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 




sent. 


que je meuve que tu meuves 


qu'il meuve 
qu'ils meuvent 



50 



590 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary 
avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner, 

Emouvoir, to move. 

Promouvoir, to promote 

S'emouvoir, to be concerned. 

The verb promouvoir is only used in the present of the infinitive, 
the past participle, and the compound tenses ; it takes avoir, to have. 

S'emouvoir, being reflective, is conjugate^ like all reflective verbs, 
with etre. to be. 



1143. PLEUVOIR, TO RAIN. (Impersonal.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle, Past Participle. 

pleuvoir. pleuvant. plu. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. il pleut. 

Preterite Definite. il plut. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary 
avoir, to have, and only in the third person singular. 



1144. POURVOIR, TO PROVIDE. 

INFINTIVE MOOD. 
Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

pourvoir. pourvoyant. pourvu. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je pourvois tu pourvois il pourvoit. 

Preterite Definite, je pourvus tu pourvus il pourvut 

nous pourvumes vous pourvutes ils pourvurent. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. 



1145. POZTVOIR, TO BE ABLE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

pouvoir. pouvant. pu. 



SEOIR, TO FIT, TO BECOME, ETC. 



591 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


je peux or puis 


tu peux 


il peut 
ils peuvent 


Preterite Definite. 


je pus 
nous puines 


tu pus 
vous putes 


il put 
ils purent. 


Future Absolute. 


je pourrai, &c. 








CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je pourrais, &c. 

SUBJUN 


CTIVE MOOD. 





Present. 



que je puisse que tu puisses qu'il puisse 

que nous puissions que vous puissiez qu'ils puissent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. ^ 



1146. S AVOIR, TO KNOW. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


savoir. 


eachant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


su. 


Present. 


je sais tu sais 
nous savons vous savez 


il sait 
ils savent. 


Imperfect. 


je savais, &c. 




Preterite Definite. 


je sus tu sus 
nous sumes vous states 


il sut 
ils surent. 


Future Absolute. 


je saurai, &c. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je saurais, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

sache 
sachons sachez. 





The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. 



1147. SEOIR, TO FIT, TO BECOME, TO FIT WELL. (Defective.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

seyant. sis. 



seoir. 



592 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 
Imperfect. 
Future Absolute. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

il sied 
il seyait 
il siera 



ils sieent. 
ils seyaient 
ils sieront. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

il sierait 



ils sieraient. 



Present. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



qu'il siee 



qu'ils sieent. 



This verb has only the above tenses and persons, and has no com- 
pound tenses. 



1148. SURSEOIR, TO REPRIEVE, TO PUT OFF. 

This verb is only used in the present of the infinitive, the past par- 
ticiple, sursis, and the compound tenses taken passively and imper- 
sonally; as in, 



The sentence has been put off. 



II a ete sursis au jugement. 



Present. 
valoir. 



1149. VALOIR, TO BE WORTH. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Participle. Past Participle. 



valant. 



valu. 



Present. je vaux 

Preterite Definite, je valus 

nous valumes 

Future Absolute. je vaudrai, &c. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

tu vaux 



tu valus 
vous valutes 



il vaut. 

il valut 
ils valurent. 



Present. 



Present. 



CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

je vaudrais, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je vaille que tu vailles 



qu'il vaille 
qu'ils vaillent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have, as well as the following : 



VOULOIR, TO BE WILLING. 593 

Revaloir, to return like for like. 

Equivaloir, to be equivalent. 

Prevaloir, to prevail. 

This last verb makes its present of the subjunctive as follows : 

que je prevale que tu prevales qu'il prevale 

que nous prevalions que nous prevaliez qu'ils prevalent. 



1150. VOIR, TO SEE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


voir. 


voyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


vu. 


Present. 


je vois tu vois 


il voit. 


Preterite Definite. 


je vis tu vis 
nous vinies vous vite3 


il vit 

ils virent. 


Future Absolute. 


je verrai, &c. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 




Present. 


je verrais, &c. 





The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have, as well as those of the following : 

Revoir, to see again. 

Entrevoir, to have a glimpse of. 

Prevoir, to foresee. 

This last verb makes its future and conditional as follows : 

Future Absolute. je prevoirai, &c. 

Conditional 
Present. je prevoirais, &c. 





1151. VOULOIR, TO BE 


WILLING. 






INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 




Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


vouloir. 




voulant. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


voulu. 


Present. 


je veux 
50* 


tu veux 


il veut 

ila veulent. 



594 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Preterite Definite. 


je voulus tu voulus 
nous voulumes vous voulutes 


il voulut 

ils voulurent. 


Future Absolute. 
Present. 


je voudrai, &c. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

je voudrais, &c. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

veuille 
veuillons veuillez. 





Present. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

que je veuille que tu veuilles 



qu'il veuille 
qu'ils veuillent. 



The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, to 
have. 



IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS, OF THE FOURTH 
CONJUGATION. 

1152. BATTRE, TO BEAT. 



Present. 
battre. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Participle. 
battant. 



Past Participle. 
battu. 



Present. 



bats 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

tu bats 



Preterite Definite, je battis 

nous battimes 



tu 

vous battites 



il bat. 

il battit 

ils battirent. 



The compound tenses of battre are conjugated with avoir, to have, 
as well as those of the following : 



Abattre, 

Combattre, 

Debattre, 

Rabattre, 

Rebattre, 




to pull or cut down. 

to fight. 

to debate. 

to pull down again, 

to beat. 


to abate 


lowing, being 


reflective, 


are conjugated with etre, t 


S'ebattre, 
Se debattre, 




to make, or to be, 
to struggle. 


merry. 



CONCLURE, TO CONCLUDE. 



595 



1153. BOIRE, TO DRINK. 





INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


boire. 


buvant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD, 


bu. 


Present. 


je hois tu bois 


il boit 

ils boivent. 


Preterite Definite. 


je bus tu bus 
nous bunies vous butes 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


il but 

ils burent. 


Present. 


que je boive que tu boives 


qu'il boive 
qu'ils boivent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have, as well as those ofreboire, to drink again. 



1154. CLORE, TO CLOSE. (Defective.) 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
clore. 



Present. 



clos 



Present Participle. 
closant. 

INDICATD7E MOOD. 

tu clos 



Past Participle. 
clos. 



il clot. 



No preterite definite. 

This verb, in its compound tenses, is conjugated with avoir, to 
have, as well as eclore, to hatch, and enclore, to enclose. 



1155. CO NC LURE, TO CONCLUDE. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle. 

conclure. concluant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je conclus tu conclus 

Preterite Definite, je conclus tu conclus 

nous conclumes vous conclutes 



Past Participle, 
conclu. 

il conclut. 

il conclut 
ils conclurent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have, as well as those of exclvre, to exclude. 



596 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



1156. CONFIRE, TO PICKLE. 



Present. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Present Participle. 

confire. confisant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

je confis tu confis 

tu confis 



Preterite Definite, je confis 

nous conflmes 



vous confites 



Past Participle. 
confit. 



il confit. 

il confit 

ils confirent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 

have, as well as those of the following : 

Suifire, to suffice. 

Circoncire 



e, 




to circumcise. 






1157. 


COUDRE, TO SEW. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 




Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


coudre. 




cousant. 


cousu. 



Present. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

je couds tu couds 

Preterite Definite, je cousis 

nous couslmes 



tu cousis 
vous cousites 



il coud. 



il cousit 

ils cousirent. 



The compound tenses of this verb take avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 



Decoudre, 
Recoudre, 



to rip. 

to sew again. 



1158. CROIRE, TO BELIEVE. 









INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 






Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


croire. 






croyant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


cru. 


Present. 


j e 


crois 


tu crois 


il croit. 


Preterite Definite. 


je crus tu cms 
nous crumes vous crutes 


il crut 

ils crurent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have, as well as those of accroire, to make one believe, which is only 
used in the infinitive present with the verb faire, to make ; as in, 
Faire accroire. To make one believe, 



DIRE, TO SAY. 



597 









1159. 


CROITRE, TO 


GROW. 










INFINITIVE MOOD. 








Present. 
croitre. 






Present Participle. 
croissant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Past Participle. 
cm. 


Present. 




je 


crois 


tu crois 




il croit. 


Preterite 


Definite. 


je crus tu crus 
nous crumes vous crutes 


il crut 

ils crurent. 



This verb is conjugated with avoir or etre, according as its signifi- 
cation is active or passive. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 



Accroitre, 
Decroitre, 






to increase, 
to decrease. 










1160. DIRE, TO SAY. 










INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 
dire. 






Present Participle. 
disant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle. 
dit. 


Present. 


J e 


di= 


tu dis 
vous dites. 


ildit 


Preterite Definite. 


je dis 
nous 


s tu dis 
dimes vous dites 


ildit 
ils dirent. 



The verb dire is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 
Redire, to say again. 

The following verbs, 

Contredire, to contradict, 

Dedire, to disown, 

Interdire, to interdict, 

Maudire, to curse, 

Medire, to slander, 

Predire, to foretell, 

Se dedire, to recant, 

are also conjugated like dire, with the exception that their second 
person plural of the present of the indicative makes 



contredisez, 


maudissez, 


predisez, 


dedisez, 


medisez, 


dedisez. 


interdisez, 







598 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Maudire, to curse, takes ss in maudissant, in the three persons, 
plural of the present of the indicative, maudissons, maudissez, mau- 
dissent, in all the persons of the imperfect, in the third person singular 
and the three persons plural of the present of the subjunctive, qu'il 
maudisse, que nous maudissions, &c. ; the other tenses are conjugated 
like dire. 





1161. 


ECRIRE, TO WRITE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Present. 




Present Participle. Past Participle. 


ecrire. 




ecrivant. ecrit. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 


j'ecris 


tu ecris il ecrit. 


Preterite Definite. 


j'ecrivis 


tu ecrivis il ecrivit 




nous ecrivimes vous ecrivites ils ecrivirent. 


The verb ecrire is conjugated with avoir, to have. 


Conjugate in 


the same manner : 


Circonscrire, 




to circumscribe. 


Decrire, 




to describe. 


Inscrire, 




to inscribe. 


Prescrire, 




to prescribe. 


Proscrire, 




to proscribe. 


Recrire, 




to write again. 


Souscrire, 




to subscribe. 


Transcrire, 




to transcribe. 



1162. ETRE, TO BE. 
This verb has been conjugated in all its forms, page 516. 



1163. 


FAIRE, TO MAKE, TO DO, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 


TO 


CAUSE. 


Present. 
faire. 


Present Participle. 
faisant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Past Participle 
fait. 


Present. 


je fais tu fais 

vous faites 




il fait 
ils font. 


Preterite Definite. 


je fis tu fis 
nous fimes vous fi tes 




il fit 

ils firent . 



Future Absolute. je ferai, &c. 



JOINDRE, TO JOIN. 599 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 

Present. je ferais, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present. que je fasse que tu fasses qu'il fasse 

que nous fassions que vous fassiez qu'ils fassent. 

This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 

Contrefaire, to counterfeit.' 

Defaire, to undo. 

Redefaire, to undo again. 

Refaire, to do again. 

Satisfaire, to satisfy. 

Surfaire, to ask too much. 

Some writers have adopted a different orthography for several of 
the tenses of this verb; as nous fesons, and all the tenses derived 
from the present participle, fesant; but the Academy has not yet 
sanctioned it. 



1164. FRIRE, TO FRY. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Past Participle. 

frire. frit. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je fris tu fris il frit. 

Future Absolute. je frirai, &c. 

CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
Present. je frirais, &c. mmmmmmn 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

fris. 

This verb is defective, and only used in the above tenses, and in 
all the compound tenses which are formed with avoir, to have. 

In order to supply the tenses and persons which are wanting, we 

use the verb /aire, to make, in those tenses and persons, with the 

verb frire, in the infinitive ; as in, 

We fry. Nous faisons frire. 

You fry. Vous faites frire, &c. 



1165. JOIXDRE, TO JOIN. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle. Past Participle, 

joindre. joignant. joint. 



600 



FRENCH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 
Preterite Definite. 



je joins 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 

tu joins 



je joignis 
nous joignimes 



tu joignis 
vous joigmtes 



il joint. 

il joignit 
ils joignirent. 



The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. 

Conjugate in the same manner all the verbs ending in amdre, eindre, 
oindre, in the present of the infinitive ; as, 



Craindre, 

Peindre, 

Poindre, 






to fear, 
to paint, 
to dawn. 




Also : 










Astreindre, 

Atteindre, 

Ceindre, 

Oontraindre, 

Enfreindre, 

Eteindre. 

Feindre, 

Plaindre, 

Restreindre, 

Teindre, 






to subject, to compel. 

to reach, to overtake. 

to gird. 

to constrain. 

to infringe. 

to put out, to extinguish. 

to feign, to pretend. 

to pity 

to restrain. 

to dye. 


T-'' 




1166 


LIRE, TO READ. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 






Present Participle. 


Past Participle 


lire. 






lisant. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


lu. 


Present. 


je 


lis 


tu lis 


il lit. 


Preterite Definite. 


je lus tu lus 
nous lumes vous lutes 


il lut. 
ils lurent. 






This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 



Elire, 
Relire, 



to elect. 

to read again. 



Present. 
mettre. 



1167. METTRE, TO PUT. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Participle. 



Past Participle. 
mis. 



NAITEE, TO BE BORN. 



601 





INDICATIVE MOOD. 




Present. 


je mets tu mets 


il met. 


Preterite Definite. 


je mis tu mis 
nous mimes vous mites 


il mit 
ils inirent 



This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 



Admettre, 

Commettre, 

Compromettre, 

Demettre 

Omettre 

Permettre, 

Promettre, 

Remettre, 

Soumettre, 

Transmettre, 

Se demettre, 

S'entremettre, 



to admit. 

to commit. 

to compromise. 

to disjoint, to put out. 

to omit. 

to permit. 

to promise. 

to put again, to set again, to replace. 

to submit. 

to transmit. 

to resign. 

to interpose. 



The last two verbs, being reflective, take the auxiliary etre, to be. 



1168. 



MOUDRE, TO GRIND. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present. 
moudre. 


Present Participle. 
moulant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Past Participle. 
moulu. 


Present. 


je mouds tu mouds 


il moud. 


Preterite Definite. 


je moulus tu moulus 
nous moulumes vous moulutes 


il moulut 
ils moulurent 



This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. 

Conjugate in the same manner : 

to grind, to whet, 
to grind again. 



Etnoudre, 
Remoudre 



Present. 
naitre. 

Present. 
Preterite Definite. 



1169. NAITRE, TO BE BORN. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Participle. Past Participle. 



naissant. 

INDICATrVE MOOD. 

tu nais 



je naquis 
nous naquimes 

51 



ne. 



il nait. 



tu naquis 
vous naqultes 



il naquit 

ils naquirent. 



602 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 

This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 

Renaitre, to revive. 



1170. PAITRE, TO GRAZE. 







INFINITIVE MOOD. 




Present. 




Present Participle. 


Past Participle. 


paitre. 




paissant. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 


pu. 




je pais 


tu pais 


il pait. 



Present. 

(No preterite definite.') 

This verb, which is very little used, has no compound tenses, no 
preterite definite, and no imperfect of the subjunctive. 
Conjugate in the same manner : 

Repaitre, to feed. 

Se repaitre, to feed one's self. 

These two verbs have a preterite definite and imperfect of the sub- 
junctive ; as, 

je repus tu repus il reput 

nous repumes vous reputes ils repurent. 

que je repusse que tu repusses qu'il reput 

que nous repussions que vous repussiez qu'ils repussent. 

The compound tenses of repaitre are conjugated with avoir, and 
those of se repaitre with etre, to be. 



1171. PARAITRE, TO APPEAR. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. 

paraitre. paraissant. paru. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. je parais tu parais il parait. 

Preterite Definite, je parus tu parus il parut 

nous parumes vous parutes ils parurent. 

The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to 
have. 






